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Abstract
Popular for its highly visual and easy-to-follow approach, Nolte's The Human Brain helps demystify the complexities of the gross anatomy of the brain, spinal cord and brainstem. A clear writing style, interesting examples and visual cues bring this extremely complicated subject to life and more understandable.
- Get the depth of coverage you need with discussions on all key topics in functional neuroanatomy and neuroscience, giving you well-rounded coverage of this complex subject.
- Zero in on the key information you need to know with highly templated, concise chapters that reinforce and expand your knowledge.
- Develop a thorough, clinically relevant understanding through clinical examples providing a real-life perspective.
- Gain a greater understanding of every concept through a glossary of key terms that elucidates every part of the text; 3-dimensional brain.
- Acquaint yourself with the very latest advancements in the field with many illustrations using the most current neuroimaging techniques, reflecting recent developments and changes in understanding.
- Keep up with the latest knowledge in neural plasticity including formation, modification, and repair of connections, with coverage of learning and memory, as well as the coming revolution in ways to fix damaged nervous systems, trophic factors, stem cells, and more.
- NEW! Gauge your mastery of the material and build confidence with over 100 multiple choice questions that provide effective chapter review and quick practice for your exams.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| Inside Front Cover | ifc1 | ||
| Nolte's The Human Brain | i | ||
| Copyright Page | ii | ||
| Preface | iii | ||
| In Memoriam | v | ||
| Table Of Contents | vii | ||
| Video Contents | xi | ||
| 1 Introduction to the Nervous System | 1 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 1 | ||
| The Nervous System Has Central and Peripheral Parts | 1 | ||
| The Principal Cellular Elements of the Nervous System Are Neurons and Glial Cells | 2 | ||
| Neurons Come in a Variety of Sizes and Shapes, yet All Are Variations on the Same Theme | 2 | ||
| Neuronal Cell Bodies and Axons Are Largely Segregated Within the Nervous System | 6 | ||
| Neuronal Organelles Are Distributed in a Pattern That Supports Neuronal Function | 8 | ||
| Neuronal Cell Bodies Synthesize Macromolecules | 9 | ||
| Dendrites Receive Synaptic Inputs | 10 | ||
| Axons Convey Electrical Signals Over Long Distances | 13 | ||
| Organelles and Macromolecules Are Transported in Both Directions Along Axons | 13 | ||
| Synapses Mediate Information Transfer Between Neurons | 18 | ||
| Schwann Cells Are Glial Cells of the PNS | 20 | ||
| PNS Axons Can Be Myelinated or Unmyelinated | 20 | ||
| CNS Glial Cells Include Oligodendrocytes, Astrocytes, Ependymal Cells, and Microglial Cells | 22 | ||
| Some CNS Axons Are Myelinated by Oligodendrocytes, but Others Are Unmyelinated | 29 | ||
| Astrocytes Provide Structural and Metabolic Support to Neurons | 29 | ||
| Ependymal Cells Line the Ventricles | 29 | ||
| Microglial Cells Respond to CNS Injury | 29 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 38 | ||
| 2 Development of the Nervous System | 39 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 39 | ||
| The Neural Tube Gives Rise to the Central Nervous System | 39 | ||
| The Sulcus Limitans Separates Sensory and Motor Areas of the Spinal Cord and Brainstem | 40 | ||
| The Neural Tube Has a Series of Bulges and Flexures | 41 | ||
| There Are Three Primary Vesicles | 41 | ||
| There Are Five Secondary Vesicles | 42 | ||
| Growth of the Telencephalon Overshadows Other Parts of the Nervous System | 42 | ||
| The Cavity of the Neural Tube Persists as a System of Ventricles | 46 | ||
| The Neural Crest and Cranial Placodes Give Rise to the Peripheral Nervous System | 48 | ||
| Adverse Events During Development Can Cause Congenital Malformations of the Nervous System | 49 | ||
| Defective Closure of the Neural Tube Can Cause Spina Bifida or Anencephaly | 51 | ||
| Defective Secondary Neurulation Can Cause a Distinctive Set of Abnormalities | 53 | ||
| The Forebrain Can Develop Abnormally Even If Neural Tube Closure Is Complete | 53 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 54 | ||
| 3 Gross Anatomy and General Organization of the Central Nervous System | 56 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 56 | ||
| The Long Axis of the CNS Bends at the Cephalic Flexure | 57 | ||
| Hemisecting a Brain Reveals Parts of the Diencephalon, Brainstem, and Ventricular System | 58 | ||
| Humans, Relative to Other Animals, Have Large Brains and Many Neurons | 59 | ||
| Named Sulci and Gyri Cover the Cerebral Surface | 59 | ||
| Each Cerebral Hemisphere Includes a Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal, and Limbic Lobe | 61 | ||
| The Frontal Lobe Contains Motor Areas | 61 | ||
| The Parietal Lobe Contains Somatosensory Areas | 62 | ||
| The Temporal Lobe Contains Auditory Areas | 64 | ||
| The Occipital Lobe Contains Visual Areas | 65 | ||
| The Limbic Lobe Is Interconnected with Other Limbic Structures, Some Buried in the Temporal Lobe | 65 | ||
| The Diencephalon Includes the Thalamus and Hypothalamus | 66 | ||
| The Thalamus Conveys Information to the Cerebral Cortex | 66 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Controls the Autonomic Nervous System | 68 | ||
| Most Cranial Nerves Are Attached to the Brainstem | 68 | ||
| The Cerebellum Includes a Vermis and Two Hemispheres | 70 | ||
| Sections of the Forebrain Reveal the Basal Nuclei and Limbic Structures | 70 | ||
| Many Parts of Each Cerebral Hemisphere Are Arranged in a C Shape | 70 | ||
| The Caudate Nucleus, Putamen, and Globus Pallidus Are Major Components of the Basal Nuclei | 71 | ||
| The Amygdala and Hippocampus Are Major Limbic Structures | 71 | ||
| Cerebral Structures Are Arranged Systematically | 71 | ||
| Parts of the Nervous System Are Interconnected in Systematic Ways (Generalizations) | 72 | ||
| Axons of Primary Afferents and Lower Motor Neurons Convey Information to and From the CNS | 72 | ||
| Axons of Primary Afferents Enter the CNS Without Crossing the Midline | 72 | ||
| Axons of Lower Motor Neurons Leave the CNS Without Crossing the Midline | 73 | ||
| Somatosensory Inputs Participate in Reflexes, Pathways to the Cerebellum, and Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex | 73 | ||
| Somatosensory Pathways to the Cerebral Cortex Cross the Midline and Pass Through the Thalamus | 78 | ||
| Somatosensory Cortex Contains a Distorted Map of the Body | 79 | ||
| Each Side of the Cerebellum Receives Information About the Ipsilateral Side of the Body | 79 | ||
| Other Sensory Systems Are Similar to the Somatosensory System | 80 | ||
| Higher Levels of the CNS Influence the Activity of Lower Motor Neurons | 81 | ||
| Corticospinal Axons Cross the Midline | 81 | ||
| Each Side of the Cerebellum Indirectly Affects Movements of the Ipsilateral Side of the Body | 81 | ||
| The Basal Nuclei of One Side Indirectly Affect Movements of the Contralateral Side of the Body | 81 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 82 | ||
| 4 Meningeal Coverings of the Brain and Spinal Cord | 84 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 84 | ||
| There Are Three Meningeal Layers: The Dura Mater, Arachnoid, and Pia Mater | 84 | ||
| The Dura Mater Provides Mechanical Strength | 86 | ||
| Dural Folds Partially Separate Different Intracranial Compartments | 86 | ||
| The Dura Mater Contains Venous Sinuses That Drain the Brain | 86 | ||
| The Dura Mater Has Its Own Blood Supply | 89 | ||
| The Dura Mater Is Pain Sensitive | 90 | ||
| The Arachnoid Mater | 90 | ||
| The Arachnoid Bridges Over CNS Surface Irregularities, Forming Cisterns | 91 | ||
| CSF Enters the Venous Circulation Through Arachnoid Villi | 93 | ||
| The Arachnoid Has a Barrier Function | 93 | ||
| Pia Mater Covers the Surface of the CNS | 93 | ||
| The Vertebral Canal Contains a Spinal Epidural Space | 94 | ||
| Bleeding Can Open Up Potential Meningeal Spaces | 96 | ||
| Tearing of Meningeal Arteries Can Cause an Epidural Hematoma | 97 | ||
| Tearing of Veins Where They Enter Venous Sinuses Can Cause a Subdural Hematoma | 97 | ||
| Parts of the CNS Can Herniate from One Intracranial Compartment Into Another | 97 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 101 | ||
| 5 Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid | 103 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 103 | ||
| The Brain Contains Four Ventricles | 103 | ||
| A Lateral Ventricle Curves Through Each Cerebral Hemisphere | 104 | ||
| The Third Ventricle Is a Midline Cavity in the Diencephalon | 105 | ||
| The Fourth Ventricle Communicates with Subarachnoid Cisterns | 106 | ||
| The Ventricles Contain Only a Fraction of the CSF | 106 | ||
| Choroid Plexus Is the Source of Most CSF | 107 | ||
| The Ependymal Lining of Choroid Plexus Is Specialized as a Secretory Epithelium | 107 | ||
| CSF Is a Secretion of the Choroid Plexus | 109 | ||
| CSF Circulates Through and Around the CNS, Eventually Reaching the Venous System | 110 | ||
| CSF Has Multiple Functions | 110 | ||
| Imaging Techniques Allow Noninvasive Visualization of the CNS | 111 | ||
| Tomography Produces Images of Two-Dimensional “Slices” | 114 | ||
| CT Produces Maps of X-Ray Density | 115 | ||
| MRI Produces Maps of Water Concentration | 116 | ||
| Disruption of CSF Circulation Can Cause Hydrocephalus | 121 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 124 | ||
| 6 Blood Supply of the Brain | 126 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 126 | ||
| The Internal Carotid Arteries and Vertebral Arteries Supply the Brain | 126 | ||
| The Internal Carotid Arteries Supply Most of the Cerebrum | 127 | ||
| Small Perforating Arteries Supply Deep Cerebral Structures | 128 | ||
| The Vertebral-Basilar System Supplies the Brainstem and Parts of the Cerebrum and Spinal Cord | 130 | ||
| The Cerebral Arterial Circle (Circle of Willis) Interconnects the Internal Carotid and Vertebral-Basilar Systems | 134 | ||
| Imaging Techniques Allow Arteries and Veins to Be Visualized | 136 | ||
| Blood Flow to the CNS Is Closely Controlled | 136 | ||
| The Overall Flow Rate Is Constant, but There Are Regional Changes in Blood Flow | 138 | ||
| Strokes Result From Disruption of the Vascular Supply | 141 | ||
| A System of Barriers Partially Separates the Nervous System From the Rest of the Body | 144 | ||
| Superficial and Deep Veins Drain the Brain | 146 | ||
| Most Superficial Veins Empty Into the Superior Sagittal Sinus | 148 | ||
| Deep Veins Ultimately Empty Into the Straight Sinus | 149 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 151 | ||
| 7 Electrical Signaling by Neurons | 154 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 154 | ||
| A Lipid-Protein Membrane Separates Intracellular and Extracellular Fluids | 155 | ||
| The Lipid Component of the Membrane Is a Diffusion Barrier | 155 | ||
| Membrane Proteins Regulate the Movement of Solutes Across the Membrane | 156 | ||
| Ions Diffuse Across the Membrane Through Ion Channels—Protein Molecules With Pores | 156 | ||
| The Number and Selectivity of Ion Channels Determine the Membrane Potential | 159 | ||
| The Resting Membrane Potential of Typical Neurons Is Heavily Influenced, but Not Completely Determined, by the Potassium Concentration Gradient | 160 | ||
| Concentration Gradients Are Maintained by Membrane Proteins That Pump Ions | 161 | ||
| Inputs to Neurons Cause Slow, Local Potential Changes | 161 | ||
| Membrane Capacitance and Resistance Determine the Speed and Extent of the Response to a Current Pulse | 162 | ||
| Membranes Have a Time Constant, Allowing Temporal Summation | 162 | ||
| Larger-Diameter Neuronal Processes Have Longer Length Constants | 163 | ||
| Action Potentials Convey Information Over Long Distances | 164 | ||
| Opening and Closing of Voltage-Gated Sodium and Potassium Channels Underlie the Action Potential | 164 | ||
| Mammalian Neurons Contain Multiple Types of Voltage-Gated Na+ and K+ Channels | 167 | ||
| Action Potentials Are Followed by Brief Refractory Periods | 168 | ||
| Refractory Periods Limit the Repetition Rate of Action Potentials | 168 | ||
| Pathological Processes and Toxins Can Selectively Affect Voltage-Gated Channels | 169 | ||
| Action Potentials Are Propagated Without Decrement Along Axons | 170 | ||
| Propagation Is Continuous and Relatively Slow in Unmyelinated Axons | 170 | ||
| Refractory Periods Ensure That Action Potentials Are Propagated in Only One Direction | 173 | ||
| Action Potentials “Jump” Rapidly from Node to Node in Myelinated Axons | 173 | ||
| Demyelinating Diseases Can Slow or Block Conduction of Action Potentials | 175 | ||
| Resistors, Capacitors, and Neuronal Membranes | 177 | ||
| Calculating the Membrane Potential | 179 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 180 | ||
| 8 Synaptic Transmission Between Neurons | 182 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 182 | ||
| There Are Five Steps in Conventional Chemical Synaptic Transmission | 183 | ||
| Neurotransmitters Are Synthesized in Presynaptic Endings and in Neuronal Cell Bodies | 184 | ||
| Neurotransmitters Are Packaged Into Synaptic Vesicles Before Release | 184 | ||
| Presynaptic Endings Release Neurotransmitters Into the Synaptic Cleft | 185 | ||
| Neurotransmitters Diffuse Across the Synaptic Cleft and Bind to Postsynaptic Receptors | 185 | ||
| Neurotransmitter Action Is Terminated by Uptake, Degradation, or Diffusion | 186 | ||
| Synaptic Transmission Can Be Rapid and Point-to-Point, or Slow and Often Diffuse | 188 | ||
| Rapid Synaptic Transmission Involves Transmitter-Gated Ion Channels | 188 | ||
| Slow Synaptic Transmission Usually Involves Postsynaptic Receptors Linked to Intracellular Proteins | 189 | ||
| The Postsynaptic Receptor Determines the Effect of a Neurotransmitter | 190 | ||
| The Size and Location of a Synaptic Ending Influence the Magnitude of Its Effects | 191 | ||
| Synapses With Many Active Zones Have a Greater Effect | 191 | ||
| Synapses Closer to the Action Potential Trigger Zone Have a Greater Effect | 192 | ||
| Presynaptic Endings Can Themselves Be Postsynaptic | 193 | ||
| Synaptic Strength Can Be Facilitated or Depressed | 193 | ||
| Messages Also Travel Across Synapses in a Retrograde Direction | 195 | ||
| Most Neurotransmitters Are Small Amine Molecules, Amino Acids, or Neuropeptides | 196 | ||
| Acetylcholine Mediates Rapid, Point-to-Point Transmission in the PNS | 196 | ||
| Amino Acids Mediate Rapid, Point-to-Point Transmission in the CNS | 197 | ||
| Excessive Levels of Glutamate Are Toxic | 198 | ||
| ATP Is Not Just an Energy Source but Also a Neurotransmitter | 198 | ||
| Amines and Neuropeptides Mediate Slow, Diffuse Transmission | 198 | ||
| Drugs, Diseases, and Toxins Can Selectively Affect Particular Parts of Individual Neurotransmitter Systems | 200 | ||
| Gap Junctions Mediate Direct Current Flow From One Neuron to Another | 201 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 205 | ||
| 9 Sensory Receptors and the Peripheral Nervous System | 207 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 207 | ||
| Receptors Encode the Nature, Location, Intensity, and Duration of Stimuli | 208 | ||
| Each Sensory Receptor Has an Adequate Stimulus, Allowing It to Encode the Nature of a Stimulus | 208 | ||
| Many Sensory Receptors Have a Receptive Field, Allowing Them to Encode the Location of a Stimulus | 208 | ||
| Receptor Potentials Encode the Intensity and Duration of Stimuli | 209 | ||
| Most Sensory Receptors Adapt to Maintained Stimuli, Some More Rapidly Than Others | 209 | ||
| Sensory Receptors All Share Some Organizational Features | 210 | ||
| Sensory Receptors Use Ionotropic and Metabotropic Mechanisms to Produce Receptor Potentials | 210 | ||
| All Sensory Receptors Produce Receptor Potentials, but Some Do Not Produce Action Potentials | 211 | ||
| Somatosensory Receptors Detect Mechanical, Chemical, or Thermal Changes | 212 | ||
| Cutaneous Receptors Have Either Encapsulated or Nonencapsulated Endings | 212 | ||
| Capsules and Accessory Structures Influence the Response Properties of Cutaneous Mechanoreceptors | 214 | ||
| Nociceptors, Thermoreceptors, and Some Mechanoreceptors Have Free Nerve Endings | 217 | ||
| Nociceptors Have Both Afferent and Efferent Functions | 219 | ||
| Pain Serves Useful Functions | 220 | ||
| Cutaneous Receptors Are Not Distributed Uniformly | 221 | ||
| Receptors in Muscles and Joints Detect Muscle Status and Limb Position | 221 | ||
| Muscle Spindles Detect Muscle Length | 222 | ||
| Golgi Tendon Organs Detect Muscle Tension | 222 | ||
| Joints Have Receptors | 225 | ||
| Muscle Spindles Are Important Proprioceptors | 225 | ||
| Visceral Structures Contain a Variety of Receptive Endings | 225 | ||
| Particular Sensations Are Sometimes Related to Particular Receptor Types | 226 | ||
| Peripheral Nerves Convey Information To and From the CNS | 227 | ||
| Extensions of the Meninges Envelop Peripheral Nerves | 227 | ||
| The Diameter of a Nerve Fiber Is Correlated With Its Function | 230 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 231 | ||
| 10 Spinal Cord | 233 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 233 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Is Segmented | 234 | ||
| Each Spinal Cord Segment Innervates a Dermatome | 235 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Is Shorter Than the Vertebral Canal | 238 | ||
| All Levels of the Spinal Cord Have a Similar Cross-Sectional Structure | 238 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Is Involved in Sensory Processing, Motor Outflow, and Reflexes | 239 | ||
| Spinal Gray Matter Is Regionally Specialized | 240 | ||
| The Posterior Horn Contains Sensory Interneurons and Projection Neurons | 240 | ||
| The Anterior Horn Contains Motor Neurons | 241 | ||
| The Intermediate Gray Matter Contains Autonomic Neurons | 243 | ||
| Spinal Cord Gray Matter Is Arranged in Layers | 244 | ||
| Reflex Circuitry Is Built Into the Spinal Cord | 244 | ||
| Muscle Stretch Leads to Excitation of Motor Neurons | 244 | ||
| Muscle Tension Can Lead to Inhibition of Motor Neurons | 245 | ||
| Painful Stimuli Elicit Coordinated Withdrawal Reflexes | 246 | ||
| Reflexes Are Accompanied by Reciprocal and Crossed Effects | 246 | ||
| Reflexes Are Modifiable | 247 | ||
| Ascending and Descending Pathways Have Defined Locations in the Spinal White Matter | 248 | ||
| The Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscus System Conveys Information About Touch and Limb Position | 249 | ||
| Information About the Location and Nature of a Stimulus Is Preserved in the Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscus System | 250 | ||
| Damage to the Posterior Column–Medial Lemniscus System Causes Impairment of Proprioception and Discriminative Tactile Functions | 250 | ||
| The Spinothalamic Tract Conveys Information About Pain and Temperature | 252 | ||
| Damage to the Anterolateral System Causes Diminution of Pain and Temperature Sensations | 255 | ||
| Additional Pathways Convey Somatosensory Information to the Thalamus | 255 | ||
| Spinal Information Reaches the Cerebellum Both Directly and Indirectly | 256 | ||
| The Posterior Spinocerebellar Tract and Cuneocerebellar Tract Convey Proprioceptive Information | 256 | ||
| The Anterior Spinocerebellar Tract Conveys More Complex Information | 256 | ||
| Descending Pathways Influence the Activity of Lower Motor Neurons | 258 | ||
| The Corticospinal Tracts Mediate Voluntary Movement | 258 | ||
| The Autonomic Nervous System Monitors and Controls Visceral Activity | 260 | ||
| Preganglionic Parasympathetic Neurons Are Located in the Brainstem and Sacral Spinal Cord | 262 | ||
| Preganglionic Sympathetic Neurons Are Located in Thoracic and Lumbar Spinal Segments | 262 | ||
| Visceral Distortion or Damage Causes Pain That Is Referred to Predictable Dermatomes | 264 | ||
| A Longitudinal Network of Arteries Supplies the Spinal Cord | 264 | ||
| Spinal Cord Damage Causes Predictable Deficits | 267 | ||
| Long-Term Effects of Spinal Cord Damage Are Preceded by a Period of Spinal Shock | 267 | ||
| The Side and Distribution of Deficits Reflect the Location of Spinal Cord Damage | 267 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 269 | ||
| 11 Organization of the Brainstem | 272 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 272 | ||
| The Brainstem Has Conduit, Cranial Nerve, and Integrative Functions | 273 | ||
| The Medulla, Pons, and Midbrain Have Characteristic Gross Anatomical Features | 274 | ||
| The Medulla Includes Pyramids, Olives, and Part of the Fourth Ventricle | 274 | ||
| The Pons Includes the Basal Pons, Middle Cerebellar Peduncles, and Part of the Fourth Ventricle | 276 | ||
| The Midbrain Includes the Superior and Inferior Colliculi, the Cerebral Peduncles, and the Cerebral Aqueduct | 277 | ||
| The Internal Structure of the Brainstem Reflects Surface Features and the Position of Long Tracts | 277 | ||
| The Corticospinal Tract and Anterolateral System Have Consistent Locations Throughout the Brainstem | 278 | ||
| The Medial Lemniscus Forms in the Caudal Medulla | 278 | ||
| The Rostral Medulla Contains the Inferior Olivary Nucleus and Part of the Fourth Ventricle | 281 | ||
| The Caudal Pons Is Attached to the Cerebellum by the Middle Cerebellar Peduncle | 281 | ||
| The Superior Cerebellar Peduncle Joins the Brainstem in the Rostral Pons | 283 | ||
| The Superior Cerebellar Peduncles Decussate in the Caudal Midbrain | 283 | ||
| The Rostral Midbrain Contains the Red Nucleus and Substantia Nigra | 285 | ||
| The Reticular Core of the Brainstem Is Involved in Multiple Functions | 286 | ||
| The Reticular Formation Participates in the Control of Movement Through Connections With Both the Spinal Cord and the Cerebellum | 287 | ||
| The Reticular Formation Modulates the Transmission of Information in Pain Pathways | 288 | ||
| The Reticular Formation Contains Autonomic Reflex Circuitry | 290 | ||
| The Reticular Formation Is Involved in the Control of Arousal and Consciousness | 290 | ||
| Some Brainstem Nuclei Have Distinctive Neurochemical Signatures | 290 | ||
| Neurons of the Locus Ceruleus Contain Norepinephrine | 291 | ||
| Neurons of the Substantia Nigra and Ventral Tegmental Area Contain Dopamine | 291 | ||
| Neurons of the Raphe Nuclei Contain Serotonin | 292 | ||
| Neurons of the Rostral Brainstem and Basal Forebrain Contain Acetylcholine | 295 | ||
| Neurochemical Imbalances Are Involved in Certain Forms of Mental Illness | 295 | ||
| The Brainstem Is Supplied by the Vertebral-Basilar System | 295 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 299 | ||
| 12 Cranial Nerves and Their Nuclei | 301 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 301 | ||
| Cranial Nerve Nuclei Have a Generally Predictable Arrangement | 301 | ||
| The Sulcus Limitans Intervenes Between Motor and Sensory Nuclei of Cranial Nerves | 302 | ||
| Cranial Nerves III, IV, VI, XI, and XII Contain Somatic Motor Fibers | 305 | ||
| The Oculomotor Nerve (III) Innervates Four of the Six Extraocular Muscles | 305 | ||
| The Trochlear Nerve (IV) Innervates the Superior Oblique | 307 | ||
| The Abducens Nerve (VI) Innervates the Lateral Rectus | 308 | ||
| The Abducens Nucleus Also Contains Interneurons That Project to the Contralateral Oculomotor Nucleus | 308 | ||
| The Accessory Nerve (XI) Innervates Neck and Shoulder Muscles | 310 | ||
| The Hypoglossal Nerve (XII) Innervates Tongue Muscles | 311 | ||
| Branchiomeric Nerves Contain Axons From Multiple Categories | 312 | ||
| The Trigeminal Nerve (V) Is the General Sensory Nerve for the Head | 312 | ||
| The Main Sensory Nucleus Receives Information About Touch and Jaw Position | 315 | ||
| The Spinal Trigeminal Nucleus Receives Information About Pain and Temperature | 315 | ||
| The Trigeminal Motor Nucleus Innervates Muscles of Mastication | 319 | ||
| The Facial (VII), Glossopharyngeal (IX), and Vagus (X) Nerves All Contain Somatic and Visceral Sensory, Visceral Motor, and Pharyngeal Motor Fibers | 319 | ||
| The Facial Nerve (VII) Innervates Muscles of Facial Expression | 320 | ||
| Upper Motor Neuron Damage Affects the Upper and Lower Parts of the Face Differently | 322 | ||
| The Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) Conveys Information From Intraoral Receptors | 323 | ||
| The Vagus Nerve (X) Is the Principal Parasympathetic Nerve | 324 | ||
| Brainstem Damage Commonly Causes Deficits on One Side of the Head and the Opposite Side of the Body | 325 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 327 | ||
| 13 The Chemical Senses of Taste and Smell | 329 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 329 | ||
| The Perception of Flavor Involves Gustatory, Olfactory, Trigeminal, and Other Inputs | 330 | ||
| Taste Is Mediated by Receptors in Taste Buds Innervated by Cranial Nerves VII, IX, and X | 330 | ||
| The Tongue Is Covered by a Series of Papillae, Some of Which Contain Taste Buds | 330 | ||
| Taste Receptor Cells Are Modified Epithelial Cells With Neuron-Like Properties | 332 | ||
| Taste Receptor Cells Utilize a Variety of Transduction Mechanisms to Detect Sweet, Salty, Sour, and Bitter Stimuli | 332 | ||
| Second-Order Gustatory Neurons Are Located in the Nucleus of the Solitary Tract | 334 | ||
| Information About Taste Is Coded, in Part, by the Pattern of Activity in Populations of Neurons | 335 | ||
| Olfaction Is Mediated by Receptors That Project Directly to the Telencephalon | 336 | ||
| The Axons of Olfactory Receptor Neurons Form Cranial Nerve I | 336 | ||
| Olfactory Receptor Neurons Utilize a Large Number of G Protein–Coupled Receptors to Detect a Wide Range of Odors | 338 | ||
| Olfactory Information Bypasses the Thalamus on Its Way to the Cerebral Cortex | 338 | ||
| The Olfactory Nerve Terminates in the Olfactory Bulb | 338 | ||
| The Olfactory Bulb Projects to Olfactory Cortex | 342 | ||
| Olfactory Information Reaches Other Cortical Areas Both Directly and Via the Thalamus | 344 | ||
| Conductive and Sensorineural Problems Can Affect Olfactory Function | 344 | ||
| Multiple Flavor-Related Signals Converge in Orbital Cortex | 345 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 345 | ||
| 14 Hearing and Balance: | 348 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 348 | ||
| Auditory and Vestibular Receptor Cells Are Located in the Walls of the Membranous Labyrinth | 349 | ||
| The Membranous Labyrinth Is Suspended Within the Bony Labyrinth, a Cavity in the Temporal Bone | 349 | ||
| Endolymph Is Actively Secreted, Circulates Through the Membranous Labyrinth, and Is Reabsorbed | 351 | ||
| Auditory and Vestibular Receptors Are Hair Cells | 351 | ||
| Hair Cells Have Mechanosensitive Transduction Channels | 352 | ||
| Subtle Differences in the Physical Arrangements of Hair Cells Determine the Stimuli to Which They Are Most Sensitive | 354 | ||
| The Cochlear Division of the Eighth Nerve Conveys Information About Sound | 354 | ||
| The Outer and Middle Ears Convey Airborne Vibrations to the Fluid-Filled Inner Ear | 355 | ||
| The Cochlea Is the Auditory Part of the Labyrinth | 355 | ||
| Traveling Waves in the Basilar Membrane Stimulate Hair Cells in the Organ of Corti, in Locations That Depend on Sound Frequency | 358 | ||
| Inner Hair Cells Are Sensory Cells; Outer Hair Cells Are Amplifiers | 361 | ||
| Auditory Information Is Distributed Bilaterally in the CNS | 363 | ||
| Activity in the Ascending Auditory Pathway Generates Electrical Signals That Can Be Measured From the Scalp | 365 | ||
| Efferents Control the Sensitivity of the Cochlea | 365 | ||
| Middle Ear Muscles Contract in Response to Loud Sounds | 366 | ||
| Different Sets of Efferents Control Outer Hair Cells and the Afferent Endings on Inner Hair Cells | 366 | ||
| Conductive and Sensorineural Problems Can Affect Hearing | 367 | ||
| The Vestibular Division of the Eighth Nerve Conveys Information About Linear and Angular Acceleration of the Head | 369 | ||
| Receptors in the Semicircular Ducts Detect Angular Acceleration of the Head | 370 | ||
| Receptors in the Utricle and Saccule Detect Linear Acceleration and Position of the Head | 371 | ||
| Vestibular Primary Afferents Project to the Vestibular Nuclei and the Cerebellum | 372 | ||
| The Vestibular Nuclei Project Primarily to the Spinal Cord, Cerebellum, and Nuclei of Cranial Nerves III, IV, and VI | 373 | ||
| Vestibulospinal Fibers Influence Antigravity Muscles and Neck Muscles | 374 | ||
| The Vestibular Nuclei Participate in the Vestibuloocular Reflex | 375 | ||
| Nystagmus Can Be Physiological or Pathological | 376 | ||
| Conditions That Make the Cupula Sensitive to Gravity Cause Nystagmus and Illusions of Movement | 379 | ||
| Efferents Control the Sensitivity of Vestibular Hair Cells | 379 | ||
| Position Sense Is Mediated by the Vestibular, Proprioceptive, and Visual Systems Acting Together | 380 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 381 | ||
| 15 Atlas of the Human Brainstem | 383 | ||
| 16 The Thalamus and Internal Capsule: | 394 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 394 | ||
| The Diencephalon Includes the Epithalamus, Subthalamus, Hypothalamus, and Thalamus | 395 | ||
| The Epithalamus Includes the Pineal Gland and the Habenular Nuclei | 395 | ||
| The Subthalamus Includes the Subthalamic Nucleus and the Zona Incerta | 397 | ||
| The Thalamus Is the Gateway to the Cerebral Cortex | 398 | ||
| The Thalamus Has Anterior, Medial, and Lateral Divisions, Defined by the Internal Medullary Lamina | 398 | ||
| Intralaminar Nuclei Are Embedded in the Internal Medullary Lamina | 401 | ||
| The Thalamic Reticular Nucleus Partially Surrounds the Thalamus | 401 | ||
| Midline Nuclei Cover the Ventricular Surface of Each Thalamus | 404 | ||
| Patterns of Input and Output Connections Define Functional Categories of Thalamic Nuclei | 404 | ||
| All Thalamic Nuclei (Except the Reticular Nucleus) Are Variations on a Common Theme | 405 | ||
| Thalamic Projection Neurons Have Two Physiological States | 405 | ||
| There Are Relay Nuclei for Sensory, Motor, and Limbic Systems | 407 | ||
| The Dorsomedial Nucleus and Pulvinar Are the Principal Association Nuclei | 408 | ||
| Intralaminar Nuclei Project to Both the Cerebral Cortex and the Basal Nuclei | 409 | ||
| The Thalamic Reticular Nucleus Projects to Other Thalamic Nuclei and Not to the Cerebral Cortex | 410 | ||
| Small Branches of the Posterior Cerebral Artery Provide Most of the Blood Supply to the Thalamus | 410 | ||
| Interconnections Between the Cerebral Cortex and Subcortical Structures Travel Through the Internal Capsule | 411 | ||
| The Internal Capsule Has Five Parts | 411 | ||
| Small Branches of the Middle Cerebral Artery Provide Most of the Blood Supply to the Internal Capsule | 413 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 417 | ||
| 17 The Visual System | 419 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 419 | ||
| The Eye Has Three Concentric Tissue Layers and a Lens | 420 | ||
| Intraocular Pressure Maintains the Shape of the Eye | 421 | ||
| The Cornea and Lens Focus Images on the Retina | 422 | ||
| The Iris Affects the Brightness and Quality of the Image Focused on the Retina | 423 | ||
| A System of Barriers Partially Separates the Retina From the Rest of the Body | 423 | ||
| The Retina Contains Five Major Neuronal Cell Types | 424 | ||
| Retinal Neurons and Synapses Are Arranged in Layers | 424 | ||
| The Retina Is Regionally Specialized | 428 | ||
| Retinal Neurons Translate Patterns of Light Into Patterns of Contrast | 429 | ||
| Photopigments Are G Protein–Coupled Receptors That Cause Hyperpolarizing Receptor Potentials | 430 | ||
| Rods Function in Dim Light | 433 | ||
| Populations of Cones Signal Spatial Detail and Color | 435 | ||
| Ganglion Cells Have Center-Surround Receptive Fields | 435 | ||
| Center-Surround Receptive Fields Are Formed in the Outer Plexiform Layer | 437 | ||
| Rod and Cone Signals Reach the Same Ganglion Cells | 441 | ||
| Half of the Visual Field of Each Eye Is Mapped Systematically in the Contralateral Cerebral Hemisphere | 441 | ||
| Fibers From the Nasal Half of Each Retina Cross in the Optic Chiasm | 442 | ||
| Most Fibers of the Optic Tract Terminate in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus | 442 | ||
| The Lateral Geniculate Nucleus Projects to Primary Visual Cortex | 444 | ||
| Damage at Different Points in the Visual Pathway Results in Predictable Deficits | 445 | ||
| Some Fibers of the Optic Tract Terminate in the Superior Colliculus, Accessory Optic Nuclei, and Hypothalamus | 447 | ||
| Primary Visual Cortex Sorts Visual Information and Distributes It to Other Cortical Areas | 450 | ||
| Visual Cortex Has a Columnar Organization | 450 | ||
| Visual Information Is Distributed in Dorsal and Ventral Streams | 450 | ||
| Early Experience Has Permanent Effects on the Visual System | 454 | ||
| Reflex Circuits Adjust the Size of the Pupil and the Focal Length of the Lens | 454 | ||
| Illumination of Either Retina Causes Both Pupils to Constrict | 454 | ||
| Both Eyes Accommodate for Near Vision | 456 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 457 | ||
| 18 Overview of Motor Systems | 459 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 459 | ||
| Each Lower Motor Neuron Innervates a Group of Muscle Fibers, Forming a Motor Unit | 459 | ||
| Lower Motor Neurons Are Arranged Systematically | 460 | ||
| There Are Three Kinds of Muscle Fibers and Three Kinds of Motor Units | 460 | ||
| Motor Units Are Recruited in Order of Size | 461 | ||
| Motor Control Systems Involve Both Hierarchical and Parallel Connections | 463 | ||
| Reflex and Motor Program Connections Provide Some of the Inputs to Lower Motor Neurons | 463 | ||
| Upper Motor Neurons Control Lower Motor Neurons Both Directly and Indirectly | 464 | ||
| Association Cortex, the Cerebellum, and the Basal Nuclei Modulate Motor Cortex | 465 | ||
| The Corticospinal Tract Has Multiple Origins and Terminations | 465 | ||
| Corticospinal Axons Arise in Multiple Cortical Areas | 466 | ||
| Motor Cortex Projects to Both the Spinal Cord and the Brainstem | 469 | ||
| Corticospinal Input Is Essential for Only Some Movements | 469 | ||
| Upper Motor Neuron Damage Causes a Distinctive Syndrome | 470 | ||
| There Are Upper Motor Neurons for Cranial Nerve Motor Nuclei | 471 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 473 | ||
| 19 Basal Nuclei | 475 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 475 | ||
| The Basal Nuclei Include Five Major Nuclei | 476 | ||
| The Striatum and Globus Pallidus Are the Major Forebrain Components of the Basal Nuclei | 478 | ||
| The Subthalamic Nucleus and Substantia Nigra Are Interconnected With the Striatum and Globus Pallidus | 479 | ||
| Basal Nuclei Circuitry Involves Multiple Parallel Loops That Modulate Cortical Output | 480 | ||
| Afferents From the Cortex Reach the Striatum and Subthalamic Nucleus; Efferents Leave From the Globus Pallidus and Substantia Nigra | 480 | ||
| Interconnections of the Basal Nuclei Determine the Pattern of Their Outputs | 481 | ||
| The Cerebral Cortex, Substantia Nigra, and Thalamus Project to the Striatum | 482 | ||
| Different Parts of the Striatum Are Involved in Movement, Cognition, and Affect | 482 | ||
| The Striatum Projects to the Globus Pallidus and Substantia Nigra | 483 | ||
| The External Segment of the Globus Pallidus Distributes Inhibitory Signals Within the Basal Nuclei | 483 | ||
| The Internal Segment of the Globus Pallidus and the Reticular Part of the Substantia Nigra Provide the Output From the Basal Nuclei | 483 | ||
| The Subthalamic Nucleus Is Part of Additional Pathways Through the Basal Nuclei | 485 | ||
| Part of the Substantia Nigra Modulates the Output of the Striatum and Other Parts of the Basal Nuclei | 485 | ||
| Perforating Branches From the Cerebral Arterial Circle (of Willis) Supply the Basal Nuclei | 487 | ||
| Many Basal Nuclei Disorders Result in Abnormalities of Movement | 488 | ||
| Anatomical and Neurochemical Properties of the Basal Nuclei Suggest Effective Treatments for Disorders | 490 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 493 | ||
| 20 Cerebellum | 495 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 495 | ||
| The Cerebellum Can Be Divided Into Both Transverse and Longitudinal Zones | 496 | ||
| Transverse Fissures Divide the Cerebellum Into Lobes | 496 | ||
| Functional Connections Divide the Cerebellum Into Longitudinal Zones | 498 | ||
| Three Peduncles Convey the Inputs and Outputs of Each Half of the Cerebellum | 498 | ||
| Deep Nuclei Are Embedded in the Cerebellar White Matter | 500 | ||
| Inputs Reach the Cerebellar Cortex as Mossy and Climbing Fibers | 500 | ||
| Purkinje Cells of the Cerebellar Cortex Project to the Deep Nuclei | 503 | ||
| Each Side of the Cerebellum Affects the Ipsilateral Side of the Body | 506 | ||
| Details of Connections Differ Among Zones | 506 | ||
| Cerebellar Cortex Receives Multiple Inputs | 507 | ||
| Vestibular Inputs Reach the Flocculus and Vermis | 508 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Projects to the Vermis and Medial Hemisphere | 508 | ||
| Cerebral Cortex Projects to the Cerebellum by Way of Pontine Nuclei | 508 | ||
| Climbing Fibers Arise in the Contralateral Inferior Olivary Nucleus | 511 | ||
| Visual and Auditory Information Reaches the Cerebellum | 512 | ||
| Each Longitudinal Zone Has a Distinctive Output | 513 | ||
| The Vermis Projects to the Fastigial Nucleus | 513 | ||
| The Medial and Lateral Parts of Each Hemisphere Project to the Interposed and Dentate Nuclei | 513 | ||
| The Lateral Hemispheres Are Involved in Planning and Skilled Movements | 514 | ||
| The Medial Hemispheres Are Involved in Adjusting Limb Movements | 515 | ||
| The Vermis Is Involved in Postural Adjustments | 516 | ||
| The Flocculus and Vermis Are Involved in Eye Movements | 516 | ||
| The Cerebellum Is Involved in Motor Learning | 516 | ||
| The Cerebellum Is Also Involved in Cognitive Functions | 518 | ||
| Clinical Syndromes Correspond to Functional Zones | 518 | ||
| Midline Damage Causes Postural Instability | 518 | ||
| Lateral Damage Causes Limb Ataxia | 518 | ||
| Damage to the Flocculus Affects Eye Movements | 521 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 521 | ||
| 21 Eye Movements | 524 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 524 | ||
| Six Extraocular Muscles Move the Eye in the Orbit | 526 | ||
| The Medial and Lateral Recti Adduct and Abduct the Eye | 527 | ||
| The Superior and Inferior Recti and the Obliques Have More Complex Actions | 527 | ||
| There Are Fast and Slow Conjugate Eye Movements | 529 | ||
| Fast, Ballistic Eye Movements Get Images Onto the Fovea | 530 | ||
| Motor Programs for Saccades Are Located in the Pons and Midbrain | 530 | ||
| The Frontal Eye Field and Superior Colliculus Trigger Saccades to the Contralateral Side | 531 | ||
| Slow, Guided Eye Movements Keep Images on the Fovea | 533 | ||
| Vestibuloocular and Optokinetic Movements Compensate for Head Movement | 533 | ||
| Smooth Pursuit Movements Compensate for Target Movement | 534 | ||
| Changes in Object Distance Require Vergence Movements | 535 | ||
| The Basal Nuclei and Cerebellum Participate in Eye Movement Control | 536 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 539 | ||
| 22 Cerebral Cortex | 541 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 541 | ||
| Most Cerebral Cortex Is Neocortex | 542 | ||
| Pyramidal Cells Are the Most Numerous Neocortical Neurons | 543 | ||
| Neocortex Has Six Layers | 543 | ||
| Different Neocortical Layers Have Distinctive Connections | 544 | ||
| The Corpus Callosum and Anterior Commissure Interconnect the Two Cerebral Hemispheres | 547 | ||
| Association Bundles Interconnect Areas Within Each Cerebral Hemisphere | 548 | ||
| Neocortex Also Has a Columnar Organization | 549 | ||
| Neocortical Areas Are Specialized for Different Functions | 549 | ||
| Different Neocortical Areas Have Subtly Different Structures | 549 | ||
| There Are Sensory, Motor, Association, and Limbic Areas | 551 | ||
| Primary Somatosensory Cortex Is in the Parietal Lobe | 553 | ||
| Primary Visual Cortex Is in the Occipital Lobe | 555 | ||
| Primary Auditory Cortex Is in the Temporal Lobe | 555 | ||
| There Are Primary Vestibular, Gustatory, and Olfactory Areas | 556 | ||
| Most Motor Areas Are in the Frontal Lobe | 556 | ||
| The Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres Are Specialized for Different Functions | 557 | ||
| Language Areas Border on the Lateral Sulcus, Usually on the Left Hemisphere | 558 | ||
| Parietal Association Cortex Mediates Spatial Orientation | 562 | ||
| Prefrontal Cortex Mediates Working Memory and Decision Making | 565 | ||
| The Corpus Callosum Unites the Two Cerebral Hemispheres | 568 | ||
| Disconnection Syndromes Can Result From White Matter Damage | 570 | ||
| Consciousness and Sleep Are Active Processes | 570 | ||
| There Are Two Forms of Sleep | 572 | ||
| Both Brainstem and Forebrain Mechanisms Regulate Sleep-Wake Transitions | 573 | ||
| Control Circuits for REM Sleep Are Located in the Brainstem | 574 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 575 | ||
| 23 Drives and Emotions: | 579 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 579 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Coordinates Drive-Related Behaviors | 580 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Can Be Subdivided in Both Longitudinal and Medial-Lateral Directions | 581 | ||
| Hypothalamic Inputs Arise in Widespread Neural Sites | 584 | ||
| Most Inputs From the Forebrain Arise in Limbic Structures | 584 | ||
| Inputs From the Brainstem and Spinal Cord Traverse the Medial Forebrain Bundle and Dorsal Longitudinal Fasciculus | 585 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Contains Intrinsic Sensory Neurons | 586 | ||
| Hypothalamic Outputs Largely Reciprocate Inputs | 586 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Controls Both Lobes of the Pituitary Gland | 586 | ||
| Perforating Branches From the Circle of Willis Supply the Hypothalamus | 588 | ||
| The Hypothalamus Collaborates With a Network of Brainstem and Spinal Cord Neurons | 588 | ||
| Normal Micturition Involves a Central Pattern Generator in the Pons | 590 | ||
| The Hypothalamus and Associated Central Pattern Generators Keep Physiological Variables Within Narrow Limits | 592 | ||
| Limbic Structures Are Interposed Between the Hypothalamus and Neocortex | 593 | ||
| The Hippocampus and Amygdala Are the Central Components of the Two Major Limbic Subsystems | 594 | ||
| The Amygdala Is Centrally Involved in Emotional Responses | 594 | ||
| The Amygdala Receives a Wide Variety of Sensory Inputs | 595 | ||
| The Amygdala Projects to the Cerebral Cortex and Hypothalamus | 599 | ||
| The Amygdala Is Involved in Emotion-Related Aspects of Learning | 599 | ||
| Bilateral Temporal Lobe Damage Causes a Complex, Devastating Syndrome | 603 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 603 | ||
| 24 Formation, Modification, and Repair of Neuronal Connections | 605 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 605 | ||
| Both Neurons and Connections Are Produced in Excess During Development | 606 | ||
| Neurotrophic Factors Ensure That Adequate Numbers of Neurons Survive | 606 | ||
| Axonal Branches Are Pruned to Match Functional Requirements | 608 | ||
| Pruning of Neuronal Connections Occurs During Critical Periods | 609 | ||
| Synaptic Connections Are Adjusted Throughout Life | 612 | ||
| There Are Short-Term and Long-Term Adjustments of Synaptic Strength | 612 | ||
| Multiple Memory Systems Depend on Adjustments of Synaptic Strength | 614 | ||
| Cortical Maps Are Adjusted Throughout Life | 614 | ||
| The Hippocampus and Nearby Cortical Regions Are Critical for Declarative Memory | 616 | ||
| The Hippocampus Is a Cortical Structure That Borders the Inferior Horn of the Lateral Ventricle | 617 | ||
| The Fornix Is a Prominent Output Pathway From the Hippocampus | 620 | ||
| Entorhinal Cortex Is the Principal Source of Inputs to the Hippocampus | 620 | ||
| Hippocampal Outputs Reach Entorhinal Cortex, the Mammillary Body, and the Septal Nuclei | 621 | ||
| Bilateral Damage to the Hippocampus or Medial Diencephalon Impairs Declarative Memory | 621 | ||
| The Amygdala Is Centrally Involved in Emotional Memories | 623 | ||
| The Basal Ganglia Are Important for Some Forms of Nondeclarative Memory | 623 | ||
| The Cerebellum Is Important for Some Forms of Nondeclarative Memory | 624 | ||
| PNS Repair Is More Effective Than CNS Repair | 625 | ||
| Peripheral Nerve Fibers Can Regrow After Injury | 625 | ||
| CNS Glial Cells Impede Repair After Injury | 627 | ||
| Limited Numbers of New Neurons Are Added to the CNS Throughout Life | 627 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 630 | ||
| 25 Atlas of the Human Forebrain | 632 | ||
| Glossary | 652 | ||
| Index | 679 | ||
| A | 679 | ||
| B | 680 | ||
| C | 682 | ||
| D | 685 | ||
| E | 686 | ||
| F | 686 | ||
| G | 687 | ||
| H | 688 | ||
| I | 689 | ||
| J | 690 | ||
| K | 690 | ||
| L | 690 | ||
| M | 691 | ||
| N | 692 | ||
| O | 694 | ||
| P | 695 | ||
| Q | 697 | ||
| R | 697 | ||
| S | 698 | ||
| T | 700 | ||
| U | 701 | ||
| V | 702 | ||
| W | 703 | ||
| X | 703 | ||
| Z | 703 | ||
| Cardboard | IBC1 | ||
| Inside Back Cover | ibc1 |