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Book Details
Abstract
Brilliantly and abundantly illustrated, this dynamic resource is the most comprehensive, research-based, reader-friendly text on kinesiology. An engaging approach explores the fundamental principles in vivid detail and clarifies the link between the structure and function of the musculoskeletal system to help you ensure a clear, confident understanding.
- UNIQUE! Clinical Connections boxes in each chapter enhance your understanding and promote practical application.
- Special Focus boxes and clinical examples throughout the text bridge classroom content with real-world application to help you succeed in practice.
- Logically organized content establishes an understanding of fundamental concepts before moving on to more complex material to make learning easier.
- Chapter outlines provide a framework for learning and enable you to reference specific topics at a glance.
- UNIQUE! A companion Evolve Resources website reinforces your understanding through kinesiology video clips and answers to study questions.
- UNIQUE! More than 500 high-quality, full-color illustrations clarify musculoskeletal anatomy and reinforce anatomic concepts.
- Study questions in each chapter test your comprehension and strengthen your critical-thinking capabilities.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Distinctive Features | ifc1 | ||
| Half title page | i | ||
| Evolve page | ii | ||
| Kinesiology of the Musculoskeletal System | iii | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| About the Author | vii | ||
| About the Contributors | xi | ||
| Reviewers | xiii | ||
| Preface | xv | ||
| Background | xv | ||
| Approach | xv | ||
| Organization | xv | ||
| Distinctive Features | xvi | ||
| Ancillary Materials | xvi | ||
| Acknowledgments | xvi | ||
| Table of Contents | xix | ||
| I Essential Topics of Kinesiology | 1 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 2 | ||
| Study Questions | 2 | ||
| 1 Getting Started | 3 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 3 | ||
| WHAT IS KINESIOLOGY? | 3 | ||
| OVERALL PLAN OF THIS TEXTBOOK | 3 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 4 | ||
| Translation Compared with Rotation | 4 | ||
| Osteokinematics | 5 | ||
| PLANES OF MOTION | 5 | ||
| AXIS OF ROTATION | 5 | ||
| DEGREES OF FREEDOM | 6 | ||
| OSTEOKINEMATICS: A MATTER OF PERSPECTIVE | 6 | ||
| Arthrokinematics | 7 | ||
| TYPICAL JOINT MORPHOLOGY | 7 | ||
| FUNDAMENTAL MOVEMENTS BETWEEN JOINT SURFACES | 7 | ||
| Roll-and-Slide Movements | 8 | ||
| Spin | 8 | ||
| Motions That Combine Roll-and-Slide and Spin Arthrokinematics | 8 | ||
| PREDICTING AN ARTHROKINEMATIC PATTERN BASED ON JOINT MORPHOLOGY | 9 | ||
| CLOSE-PACKED AND LOOSE-PACKED POSITIONS AT A JOINT | 10 | ||
| KINETICS | 11 | ||
| Musculoskeletal Forces | 11 | ||
| IMPACT OF FORCES ON THE MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM: INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS AND TERMINOLOGY | 11 | ||
| INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FORCES | 13 | ||
| Musculoskeletal Torques | 15 | ||
| Muscle and Joint Interaction | 18 | ||
| TYPES OF MUSCLE ACTIVATION | 18 | ||
| MUSCLE ACTION AT A JOINT | 19 | ||
| Terminology Related to the Actions of Muscles | 20 | ||
| Musculoskeletal Levers | 20 | ||
| THREE CLASSES OF LEVERS | 20 | ||
| First-Class Lever | 20 | ||
| Second-Class Lever | 21 | ||
| Third-Class Lever | 21 | ||
| MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE | 21 | ||
| Dictating the Trade-off between Force and Distance | 23 | ||
| SUMMARY | 24 | ||
| GLOSSARY | 25 | ||
| REFERENCES | 26 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 27 | ||
| 2 Basic Structure and Function of Human Joints | 28 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 28 | ||
| CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS BASED ON MOVEMENT POTENTIAL | 28 | ||
| Synarthroses | 28 | ||
| Diarthroses: Synovial Joints | 29 | ||
| CLASSIFICATION OF SYNOVIAL JOINTS BASED ON MECHANICAL ANALOGY | 30 | ||
| Simplifying the Classification of Synovial Joints: Ovoid and Saddle Joints | 33 | ||
| AXIS OF ROTATION | 34 | ||
| HISTOLOGIC ORGANIZATION OF PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUES | 34 | ||
| Fibrous Proteins | 35 | ||
| Ground Substance | 36 | ||
| Cells | 36 | ||
| TYPES OF PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUES | 36 | ||
| Dense Connective Tissue | 36 | ||
| Articular Cartilage | 38 | ||
| Fibrocartilage | 39 | ||
| BONE | 40 | ||
| SOME EFFECTS OF IMMOBILIZATION ON THE STRENGTH OF PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND BONE | 42 | ||
| BRIEF OVERVIEW OF JOINT PATHOLOGY | 42 | ||
| SUMMARY | 44 | ||
| REFERENCES | 44 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 46 | ||
| 3 Muscle: the Primary Stabilizer and Mover of the Skeletal System | 47 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 47 | ||
| MUSCLE AS A SKELETAL STABILIZER: GENERATING AN APPROPRIATE AMOUNT OF FORCE AT A GIVEN LENGTH | 48 | ||
| Introduction to the Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle | 48 | ||
| Muscle Morphology | 50 | ||
| Muscle Architecture | 50 | ||
| Muscle and Tendon: Generation of Force | 52 | ||
| PASSIVE LENGTH-TENSION CURVE | 52 | ||
| ACTIVE LENGTH-TENSION CURVE | 53 | ||
| SUMMATION OF ACTIVE FORCE AND PASSIVE TENSION: THE TOTAL LENGTH-TENSION CURVE | 55 | ||
| Isometric Muscle Force: Development of the Internal Torque–Joint Angle Curve | 56 | ||
| MUSCLE AS A SKELETAL MOVER: FORCE MODULATION | 58 | ||
| Modulating Force through Concentric or Eccentric Activation: Introduction to the Force-Velocity Relationship of Muscle | 59 | ||
| FORCE-VELOCITY CURVE | 59 | ||
| POWER AND WORK: ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS RELATED TO THE FORCE-VELOCITY RELATIONSHIP OF MUSCLE | 60 | ||
| Activating Muscle via the Nervous System | 61 | ||
| RECRUITMENT | 62 | ||
| RATE CODING | 63 | ||
| INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMYOGRAPHY | 64 | ||
| Recording of Electromyography | 64 | ||
| Analysis and Normalization of Electromyography | 66 | ||
| Electromyographic Amplitude during Muscular Activation | 67 | ||
| CAUSES OF MUSCLE FATIGUE IN HEALTHY PERSONS | 68 | ||
| CHANGES IN MUSCLE WITH STRENGTH TRAINING, REDUCED USE, AND ADVANCED AGE | 69 | ||
| Changes in Muscle with Strength Training | 69 | ||
| Changes in Muscle with Reduced Use | 70 | ||
| Changes in Muscle with Advanced Age | 70 | ||
| SUMMARY | 72 | ||
| REFERENCES | 73 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 76 | ||
| 4 Biomechanical Principles | 77 | ||
| NEWTON’S LAWS: UNDERLYING PRINCIPLES OF BIOMECHANICS | 77 | ||
| Newton’s Laws of Motion | 78 | ||
| NEWTON’S FIRST LAW: LAW OF INERTIA | 78 | ||
| NEWTON’S SECOND LAW: LAW OF ACCELERATION | 79 | ||
| Force (Torque)-Acceleration Relationship | 79 | ||
| Impulse-Momentum Relationship | 81 | ||
| Work-Energy Relationship | 81 | ||
| NEWTON’S THIRD LAW: LAW OF ACTION-REACTION | 83 | ||
| INTRODUCTION TO MOVEMENT ANALYSIS: SETTING THE STAGE FOR ANALYSIS | 83 | ||
| Anthropometry | 84 | ||
| Free Body Diagram | 84 | ||
| STEPS FOR CONSTRUCTING THE FREE BODY DIAGRAM | 86 | ||
| SPATIAL REFERENCE FRAMES | 87 | ||
| Forces and Torques | 88 | ||
| GRAPHIC AND MATHEMATIC METHODS OF FORCE ANALYSIS | 88 | ||
| Composition of Forces | 89 | ||
| Resolution of Forces | 90 | ||
| CONTRASTING INTERNAL VERSUS EXTERNAL FORCES AND TORQUES | 91 | ||
| INFLUENCE OF CHANGING THE ANGLE OF THE JOINT | 92 | ||
| COMPARING TWO METHODS FOR DETERMINING TORQUE AROUND A JOINT | 93 | ||
| Internal Torque | 94 | ||
| External Torque | 94 | ||
| MANUALLY APPLYING EXTERNAL TORQUES DURING EXERCISE AND STRENGTH TESTING | 94 | ||
| INTRODUCTION TO BIOMECHANICS: FINDING THE SOLUTIONS | 96 | ||
| Static Analysis | 97 | ||
| GUIDELINES FOR PROBLEM SOLVING | 98 | ||
| Problem 1 | 98 | ||
| Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components | 99 | ||
| Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force | 99 | ||
| Solving for Joint Reaction Force | 99 | ||
| Clinical Questions Related to Problem 1 | 99 | ||
| Problem 2 | 100 | ||
| Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components | 100 | ||
| Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force | 100 | ||
| Solving for Joint Reaction Force | 100 | ||
| Clinical Questions Related to Problem 2 | 100 | ||
| Problem 3 | 101 | ||
| Resolving Known Forces into X and Y Components | 103 | ||
| Solving for Internal Torque and Muscle Force | 103 | ||
| Solving for Joint Reaction Force | 103 | ||
| Clinical Questions Related to Problem 3 | 103 | ||
| Dynamic Analysis | 104 | ||
| KINEMATIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS | 104 | ||
| Electrogoniometer | 104 | ||
| Accelerometer | 104 | ||
| Imaging Techniques | 104 | ||
| Electromagnetic Tracking Devices | 106 | ||
| KINETIC MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS | 106 | ||
| Mechanical Devices | 106 | ||
| Transducers | 106 | ||
| Electromechanical Devices | 106 | ||
| SUMMARY | 112 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 108 | ||
| REFERENCES | 112 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 113 | ||
| Appendix I Trigonometry Review and Additional Biomechanical Problems | 115 | ||
| Part A: Basic Review of Right Angle Trigonometry | 115 | ||
| Part B: Additional Biomechanical Problems | 116 | ||
| Problem 1 | 116 | ||
| II Upper Extremity | 119 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 120 | ||
| Study Questions | 120 | ||
| 5 Shoulder Complex | 121 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 121 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 121 | ||
| Sternum | 121 | ||
| Clavicle | 122 | ||
| Scapula | 122 | ||
| Proximal-to-Mid Humerus | 124 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 126 | ||
| Sternoclavicular Joint | 127 | ||
| GENERAL FEATURES | 127 | ||
| PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE | 128 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 129 | ||
| Elevation and Depression | 129 | ||
| Protraction and Retraction | 130 | ||
| Axial (Longitudinal) Rotation of the Clavicle | 130 | ||
| Acromioclavicular Joint | 130 | ||
| GENERAL FEATURES | 130 | ||
| PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE | 131 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 132 | ||
| Upward and Downward Rotation | 132 | ||
| Horizontal and Sagittal Plane “Rotational Adjustments” at the Acromioclavicular Joint | 132 | ||
| Scapulothoracic Joint | 133 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 134 | ||
| Elevation and Depression | 134 | ||
| Protraction and Retraction | 134 | ||
| Upward and Downward Rotation | 135 | ||
| Glenohumeral Joint | 136 | ||
| GENERAL FEATURES | 136 | ||
| PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE AND OTHER SUPPORTING STRUCTURES | 136 | ||
| Capsular Ligaments | 136 | ||
| Rotator Cuff Muscles and Long Head of the Biceps Brachii | 140 | ||
| Glenoid Labrum | 141 | ||
| SCAPULOTHORACIC POSTURE AND ITS EFFECT ON STATIC STABILITY | 141 | ||
| CORACOACROMIAL ARCH AND ASSOCIATED BURSA | 142 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 142 | ||
| Abduction and Adduction | 142 | ||
| Importance of Roll-and-Slide Arthrokinematics at the Glenohumeral Joint | 144 | ||
| Flexion and Extension | 144 | ||
| Internal and External Rotation | 144 | ||
| Overall Kinematics of Shoulder Abduction: Establishing the Six Kinematic Principles of the Shoulder Complex | 146 | ||
| SCAPULOHUMERAL RHYTHM | 146 | ||
| STERNOCLAVICULAR AND ACROMIOCLAVICULAR JOINTS DURING FULL ABDUCTION | 147 | ||
| MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION | 150 | ||
| Innervation of the Muscles and Joints of the Shoulder Complex | 150 | ||
| INTRODUCTION TO THE BRACHIAL PLEXUS | 150 | ||
| INNERVATION OF MUSCLE | 150 | ||
| SENSORY INNERVATION TO THE JOINTS | 151 | ||
| Action of the Shoulder Muscles | 151 | ||
| Muscles of the Scapulothoracic Joint | 151 | ||
| ELEVATORS | 151 | ||
| DEPRESSORS | 152 | ||
| PROTRACTORS | 154 | ||
| RETRACTORS | 155 | ||
| UPWARD AND DOWNWARD ROTATORS | 155 | ||
| Muscles That Elevate the Arm | 155 | ||
| MUSCLES THAT ELEVATE THE ARM AT THE GLENOHUMERAL JOINT | 155 | ||
| UPWARD ROTATORS AT THE SCAPULOTHORACIC JOINT | 156 | ||
| Trapezius and Serratus Anterior Interaction during Upward Rotation of the Scapula | 156 | ||
| Paralysis of the Upward Rotators of the Scapulothoracic Joint | 157 | ||
| Trapezius Paralysis | 157 | ||
| Serratus Anterior Paralysis | 157 | ||
| FUNCTION OF THE ROTATOR CUFF MUSCLES DURING ELEVATION OF THE ARM | 158 | ||
| Regulators of Dynamic Stability at the Glenohumeral Joint | 158 | ||
| Active Controllers of the Arthrokinematics at the Glenohumeral Joint | 159 | ||
| Muscles That Adduct and Extend the Shoulder | 161 | ||
| Muscles That Internally and Externally Rotate the Shoulder | 162 | ||
| INTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES | 162 | ||
| EXTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES | 163 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 164 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 166 | ||
| REFERENCES | 168 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 172 | ||
| 6 Elbow and Forearm | 173 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 173 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 173 | ||
| Mid-to-Distal Humerus | 173 | ||
| Ulna | 175 | ||
| Radius | 175 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 177 | ||
| Joints of the Elbow | 177 | ||
| GENERAL FEATURES OF THE HUMERO-ULNAR AND HUMERORADIAL JOINTS | 177 | ||
| Normal “Valgus Angle” of the Elbow | 177 | ||
| PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE | 178 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 181 | ||
| Functional Considerations of Flexion and Extension | 181 | ||
| Arthrokinematics at the Humero-Ulnar Joint | 182 | ||
| Arthrokinematics at the Humeroradial Joint | 183 | ||
| Structure and Function of the Interosseous Membrane | 183 | ||
| Joints of the Forearm | 185 | ||
| GENERAL FEATURES OF THE PROXIMAL AND DISTAL RADIO-ULNAR JOINTS | 185 | ||
| JOINT STRUCTURE AND PERIARTICULAR CONNECTIVE TISSUE | 186 | ||
| Proximal Radio-Ulnar Joint | 186 | ||
| Distal Radio-Ulnar Joint | 186 | ||
| Introduction to the Triangular Fibrocartilage Complex | 187 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 189 | ||
| Functional Considerations of Pronation and Supination | 189 | ||
| Arthrokinematics at the Proximal and Distal Radio-Ulnar Joints | 189 | ||
| Supination | 189 | ||
| Pronation | 190 | ||
| Humeroradial Joint: a “Shared” Joint between the Elbow and the Forearm | 190 | ||
| Pronation and Supination with the Radius and Hand Held Fixed | 192 | ||
| MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION | 193 | ||
| Neuroanatomy Overview: Paths of the Musculocutaneous, Radial, Median, and Ulnar Nerves throughout the Elbow, Forearm, Wrist, and Hand | 193 | ||
| Innervation of Muscles and Joints of the Elbow and Forearm | 193 | ||
| INNERVATION OF MUSCLE | 193 | ||
| SENSORY INNERVATION OF JOINTS | 198 | ||
| Humero-Ulnar and Humeroradial Joints | 198 | ||
| Proximal and Distal Radio-Ulnar Joints | 198 | ||
| Function of the Elbow Muscles | 198 | ||
| ELBOW FLEXORS | 198 | ||
| Individual Muscle Action of the Elbow Flexors | 198 | ||
| Torque Generated by the Elbow Flexor Muscles | 200 | ||
| Polyarticular Biceps Brachii: a Physiologic Advantage of Combining Elbow Flexion with Shoulder Extension | 202 | ||
| ELBOW EXTENSORS | 202 | ||
| Muscular Components | 202 | ||
| Electromyographic Analysis of Elbow Extension | 204 | ||
| Torque Generation by the Elbow Extensors | 204 | ||
| Function of the Supinator and Pronator Muscles | 206 | ||
| SUPINATOR MUSCLES | 207 | ||
| Supinator versus Biceps Brachii | 207 | ||
| PRONATOR MUSCLES | 209 | ||
| Pronator Teres versus Pronator Quadratus | 210 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 211 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 212 | ||
| REFERENCES | 214 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 215 | ||
| 7 Wrist | 216 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 216 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 216 | ||
| Distal Forearm | 216 | ||
| Carpal Bones | 218 | ||
| SCAPHOID | 218 | ||
| LUNATE | 218 | ||
| TRIQUETRUM | 219 | ||
| PISIFORM | 219 | ||
| CAPITATE | 219 | ||
| TRAPEZIUM | 219 | ||
| TRAPEZOID | 219 | ||
| HAMATE | 219 | ||
| Carpal Tunnel | 219 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 221 | ||
| Joint Structure and Ligaments of the Wrist | 221 | ||
| JOINT STRUCTURE | 221 | ||
| Radiocarpal Joint | 221 | ||
| Midcarpal Joint | 221 | ||
| WRIST LIGAMENTS | 221 | ||
| Extrinsic Ligaments | 223 | ||
| Intrinsic Ligaments | 224 | ||
| Kinematics of Wrist Motion | 225 | ||
| OSTEOKINEMATICS | 225 | ||
| ARTHROKINEMATICS | 226 | ||
| Wrist Extension and Flexion | 226 | ||
| Dynamic Interaction within the Joints of the Central Column of the Wrist | 226 | ||
| Ulnar and Radial Deviation of the Wrist | 227 | ||
| Dynamic Interaction between the Radiocarpal and Midcarpal Joints | 227 | ||
| Additional Arthrokinematics Involving the Proximal Row of Carpal Bones | 227 | ||
| Carpal Instability | 228 | ||
| ROTATIONAL COLLAPSE OF THE WRIST | 229 | ||
| ULNAR TRANSLOCATION OF THE CARPUS | 230 | ||
| MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION | 230 | ||
| Innervation of the Wrist Muscles and Joints | 230 | ||
| INNERVATION OF MUSCLE | 230 | ||
| SENSORY INNERVATION OF THE JOINTS | 231 | ||
| Function of the Muscles at the Wrist | 231 | ||
| FUNCTION OF THE WRIST EXTENSORS | 231 | ||
| Muscular Anatomy | 231 | ||
| Biomechanical Assessment of Wrist Muscles’ Action and Torque Potential | 232 | ||
| Wrist Extensor Activity while Making a Fist | 232 | ||
| FUNCTION OF THE WRIST FLEXORS | 234 | ||
| Muscular Anatomy | 234 | ||
| Functional Considerations | 235 | ||
| FUNCTION OF THE RADIAL AND ULNAR DEVIATORS | 236 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 237 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 238 | ||
| REFERENCES | 241 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 243 | ||
| 8 Hand | 244 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 244 | ||
| TERMINOLOGY | 244 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 246 | ||
| Metacarpals | 246 | ||
| Phalanges | 248 | ||
| Arches of the Hand | 248 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 249 | ||
| Carpometacarpal Joints | 250 | ||
| SECOND THROUGH FIFTH CARPOMETACARPAL JOINTS | 250 | ||
| General Features and Ligamentous Support | 250 | ||
| Joint Structure and Kinematics | 250 | ||
| CARPOMETACARPAL JOINT OF THE THUMB | 251 | ||
| Capsule and Ligaments of the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint | 251 | ||
| Saddle Joint Structure | 251 | ||
| Kinematics | 252 | ||
| Abduction and Adduction at the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint | 252 | ||
| Flexion and Extension at the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint | 253 | ||
| Opposition of the Thumb Carpometacarpal Joint | 254 | ||
| Metacarpophalangeal Joints | 255 | ||
| FINGERS | 255 | ||
| General Features and Ligaments | 255 | ||
| Kinematics | 256 | ||
| Osteokinematics | 256 | ||
| Arthrokinematics | 257 | ||
| THUMB | 258 | ||
| III Axial Skeleton | 305 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 306 | ||
| Study Questions | 306 | ||
| 9 Axial Skeleton: Osteology and Arthrology | 307 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 307 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 309 | ||
| Components within the Axial Skeleton | 309 | ||
| CRANIUM | 309 | ||
| Temporal and Occipital Bones | 309 | ||
| VERTEBRAE: BUILDING BLOCKS OF THE SPINE | 310 | ||
| RIBS | 310 | ||
| STERNUM | 311 | ||
| Vertebral Column as a Whole | 312 | ||
| NORMAL CURVATURES WITHIN THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN | 312 | ||
| LINE OF GRAVITY PASSING THROUGH THE BODY | 314 | ||
| LIGAMENTOUS SUPPORT OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN | 315 | ||
| Regional Osteologic Features of the Vertebral Column | 318 | ||
| CERVICAL REGION | 318 | ||
| Typical Cervical Vertebrae (C3 to C6) | 318 | ||
| Atypical Cervical Vertebrae (C1, C2, and C7) | 321 | ||
| Atlas (C1) | 321 | ||
| Axis (C2) | 322 | ||
| “Vertebra Prominens” (C7) | 322 | ||
| THORACIC REGION | 322 | ||
| Typical Thoracic Vertebrae (T2 to T9) | 322 | ||
| Atypical Thoracic Vertebrae (T1 and T10 to T12) | 323 | ||
| LUMBAR REGION | 323 | ||
| SACRUM | 324 | ||
| COCCYX | 325 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 326 | ||
| Typical Intervertebral Junction | 326 | ||
| TERMINOLOGY DESCRIBING MOVEMENT | 327 | ||
| STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE APOPHYSEAL JOINTS | 327 | ||
| STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE INTERBODY JOINTS | 328 | ||
| Structural Considerations of the Lumbar Intervertebral Discs | 328 | ||
| Vertebral Endplates | 330 | ||
| Intervertebral Disc as a Hydrostatic Pressure Distributor | 330 | ||
| In Vivo Pressure Measurements from the Nucleus Pulposus | 331 | ||
| Diurnal Fluctuations in the Water Content within the Intervertebral Discs | 331 | ||
| REGIONAL ANATOMY AND KINEMATICS ACROSS THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN | 332 | ||
| Introduction to Spinal Coupling | 332 | ||
| Craniocervical Region | 333 | ||
| ANATOMY OF JOINTS | 333 | ||
| Atlanto-occipital Joint | 333 | ||
| Atlanto-axial Joint Complex | 334 | ||
| Tectorial Membrane and the Alar Ligaments | 334 | ||
| Intracervical Apophyseal Joints (C2 to C7) | 336 | ||
| SAGITTAL PLANE KINEMATICS | 336 | ||
| Osteokinematics of Flexion and Extension | 336 | ||
| Arthrokinematics of Flexion and Extension | 337 | ||
| Atlanto-occipital Joint | 337 | ||
| Atlanto-axial Joint Complex | 337 | ||
| Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7) | 337 | ||
| Osteokinematics of Protraction and Retraction | 338 | ||
| HORIZONTAL PLANE KINEMATICS | 339 | ||
| Osteokinematics of Axial Rotation | 339 | ||
| Arthrokinematics of Axial Rotation | 339 | ||
| Atlanto-axial Joint Complex | 339 | ||
| Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7) | 339 | ||
| FRONTAL PLANE KINEMATICS | 340 | ||
| Osteokinematics of Lateral Flexion | 340 | ||
| Arthrokinematics of Lateral Flexion | 340 | ||
| Atlanto-occipital Joint | 340 | ||
| Intracervical Articulations (C2 to C7) | 340 | ||
| SPINAL COUPLING BETWEEN LATERAL FLEXION AND AXIAL ROTATION | 340 | ||
| Thoracic Region | 341 | ||
| ANATOMY OF THORACIC ARTICULAR STRUCTURES | 341 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 343 | ||
| Kinematics of Flexion and Extension | 344 | ||
| Kinematics of Axial Rotation | 345 | ||
| Kinematics of Lateral Flexion | 346 | ||
| Lumbar Region | 346 | ||
| ANATOMY OF THE ARTICULAR STRUCTURES | 346 | ||
| L1 to L4 Region | 346 | ||
| L5-S1 Junction | 346 | ||
| KINEMATICS | 350 | ||
| Sagittal Plane Kinematics: Flexion and Extension | 350 | ||
| Flexion of the Lumbar Region | 350 | ||
| Extension of the Lumbar Region | 351 | ||
| Lumbopelvic Rhythm during Trunk Flexion and Extension | 353 | ||
| Variations of Lumbopelvic Rhythms during Trunk Flexion from a Standing Position: a Kinematic Analysis. | 353 | ||
| Lumbopelvic Rhythm during Trunk Extension from a Forward Bent Position: a Muscular Analysis. | 354 | ||
| Effect of Pelvic Tilting on the Kinematics of the Lumbar Spine | 355 | ||
| Kinesiologic Correlations between Anterior Pelvic Tilt and Increased Lumbar Lordosis. | 355 | ||
| Kinesiologic Correlations between Posterior Pelvic Tilt and Decreased Lumbar Lordosis. | 356 | ||
| Horizontal Plane Kinematics: Axial Rotation | 356 | ||
| Frontal Plane Kinematics: Lateral Flexion | 357 | ||
| Sitting Posture and Its Effect on Alignment within the Lumbar and Craniocervical Regions | 357 | ||
| SUMMARY OF THE KINEMATICS WITHIN THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN | 358 | ||
| SACROILIAC JOINTS | 359 | ||
| Anatomic Considerations | 360 | ||
| JOINT STRUCTURE | 360 | ||
| LIGAMENTS | 361 | ||
| INNERVATION | 362 | ||
| THORACOLUMBAR FASCIA | 362 | ||
| Kinematics | 363 | ||
| FUNCTIONAL CONSIDERATIONS | 363 | ||
| Stress Relief | 363 | ||
| Stability during Load Transfer: Mechanics of Generating a Nutation Torque at the Sacroiliac Joints | 363 | ||
| Stabilizing Effect of Gravity | 364 | ||
| Stabilizing Effect of Ligaments and Muscles | 364 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 365 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 366 | ||
| REFERENCES | 374 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 378 | ||
| 10 Axial Skeleton: | 379 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 379 | ||
| INNERVATION OF THE MUSCLES AND JOINTS WITHIN THE TRUNK AND CRANIOCERVICAL REGIONS | 380 | ||
| Ventral Ramus Innervation | 380 | ||
| PLEXUS | 380 | ||
| INDIVIDUAL NAMED NERVES | 381 | ||
| Intercostal Nerves (T1 to T12) | 381 | ||
| Recurrent Meningeal Nerves | 381 | ||
| Dorsal Ramus Innervation | 381 | ||
| TRUNK AND CRANIOCERVICAL REGIONS | 381 | ||
| Production of Internal Torque | 381 | ||
| Special Considerations for the Study of Muscle Actions within the Axial Skeleton | 383 | ||
| Muscles of the Trunk: Anatomy and Their Individual Actions | 383 | ||
| SET 1: MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR TRUNK (“BACK” MUSCLES) | 383 | ||
| Muscles in the Superficial and Intermediate Layers of the Back | 383 | ||
| Muscles in the Deep Layer of the Back | 383 | ||
| Erector Spinae Group | 385 | ||
| Spinalis Muscles. | 386 | ||
| Longissimus Muscles. | 386 | ||
| Iliocostalis Muscles. | 386 | ||
| Summary. | 386 | ||
| Transversospinal Muscles | 386 | ||
| Semispinalis Muscles. | 386 | ||
| Multifidi. | 388 | ||
| Rotatores. | 388 | ||
| Summary. | 388 | ||
| Short Segmental Group of Muscles | 388 | ||
| Summary. | 389 | ||
| SET 2: MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR-LATERAL TRUNK (“ABDOMINAL” MUSCLES) | 389 | ||
| Formation of the Rectus Sheaths and Linea Alba | 390 | ||
| Anatomy of the Abdominal Muscles | 390 | ||
| Actions of the Abdominal Muscles | 390 | ||
| Comparing Trunk Flexor versus Trunk Extensor Peak Torque | 392 | ||
| SET 3: ADDITIONAL MUSCLES (ILIOPSOAS AND QUADRATUS LUMBORUM) | 392 | ||
| Iliopsoas | 392 | ||
| Function of the Psoas Major at the Lumbosacral Region | 393 | ||
| Quadratus Lumborum | 393 | ||
| Muscles of the Trunk: Functional Interactions among Muscles | 393 | ||
| MUSCULAR-BASED STABILITY OF THE TRUNK | 394 | ||
| Intrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of the Trunk | 394 | ||
| Extrinsic Muscular Stabilizers of the Trunk | 395 | ||
| PERFORMING A STANDARD SIT-UP MOVEMENT | 396 | ||
| Muscles of the Craniocervical Region: Anatomy and Their Individual Actions | 398 | ||
| SET 1: MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR-LATERAL CRANIOCERVICAL REGION | 398 | ||
| Sternocleidomastoid | 399 | ||
| Scalenes | 399 | ||
| Longus Colli and Longus Capitis | 400 | ||
| Rectus Capitis Anterior and Rectus Capitis Lateralis | 400 | ||
| SET 2: MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR CRANIOCERVICAL REGION | 400 | ||
| Splenius Cervicis and Capitis | 401 | ||
| Suboccipital Muscles | 401 | ||
| Muscles of the Craniocervical Region: Functional Interactions among Muscles That Cross the Craniocervical Region | 402 | ||
| STABILIZING THE CRANIOCERVICAL REGION | 402 | ||
| PRODUCING EXTENSIVE AND WELL-COORDINATED MOVEMENTS OF THE HEAD AND NECK: OPTIMIZING THE PLACEMENT OF THE EYES, EARS, AND NOSE | 404 | ||
| SELECTED BIOMECHANICAL ISSUES OF LIFTING: A FOCUS ON REDUCING BACK INJURY | 405 | ||
| Muscular Mechanics of Extension of the Low Back during Lifting | 405 | ||
| ESTIMATING THE MAGNITUDE OF FORCE IMPOSED ON THE LOW BACK DURING LIFTING | 405 | ||
| WAYS TO REDUCE THE FORCE DEMANDS ON THE BACK MUSCLES DURING LIFTING | 407 | ||
| ROLE OF INCREASING INTRA-ABDOMINAL PRESSURE DURING LIFTING | 408 | ||
| ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF EXTENSION TORQUE USED FOR LIFTING | 408 | ||
| Passive Tension Generation from Stretching the Posterior Ligamentous System | 408 | ||
| Muscular-Generated Tension Transferred through the Thoracolumbar Fascia | 409 | ||
| Summary of Factors That Likely Contribute to Safe Lifting | 411 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 411 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 413 | ||
| REFERENCES | 419 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 422 | ||
| 11 Kinesiology of Mastication and Ventilation | 423 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 453 | ||
| PART 1: MASTICATION | 423 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY AND TEETH | 423 | ||
| Regional Surface Anatomy | 423 | ||
| Individual Bones | 424 | ||
| MANDIBLE | 424 | ||
| MAXILLA | 425 | ||
| TEMPORAL BONE | 425 | ||
| ZYGOMATIC BONE | 425 | ||
| SPHENOID BONE | 426 | ||
| HYOID BONE | 427 | ||
| Teeth | 427 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY OF THE TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT | 427 | ||
| Osseous Structure | 427 | ||
| MANDIBULAR CONDYLE | 427 | ||
| MANDIBULAR FOSSA | 428 | ||
| Articular Disc | 428 | ||
| Capsular and Ligamentous Structures | 429 | ||
| FIBROUS CAPSULE | 429 | ||
| LATERAL LIGAMENT | 429 | ||
| ACCESSORY LIGAMENTS | 429 | ||
| Osteokinematics | 429 | ||
| PROTRUSION AND RETRUSION | 430 | ||
| LATERAL EXCURSION | 430 | ||
| DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION | 430 | ||
| Arthrokinematics | 431 | ||
| PROTRUSION AND RETRUSION | 431 | ||
| LATERAL EXCURSION | 431 | ||
| DEPRESSION AND ELEVATION | 431 | ||
| MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION | 433 | ||
| Innervation of the Muscles and Joints | 433 | ||
| Muscular Anatomy and Function | 433 | ||
| PRIMARY MUSCLES OF MASTICATION | 433 | ||
| Masseter | 433 | ||
| Temporalis | 433 | ||
| Medial Pterygoid | 434 | ||
| Lateral Pterygoid | 434 | ||
| SECONDARY MUSCLES OF MASTICATION | 435 | ||
| SUMMARY OF INDIVIDUAL MUSCLE ACTION | 435 | ||
| MUSCULAR CONTROL OF OPENING AND CLOSING OF THE MOUTH | 436 | ||
| Opening the Mouth | 436 | ||
| Closing the Mouth | 437 | ||
| TEMPOROMANDIBULAR DISORDERS | 438 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 438 | ||
| PART 2: VENTILATION | 439 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 440 | ||
| Thorax | 440 | ||
| Articulations within the Thorax | 440 | ||
| MANUBRIOSTERNAL JOINT | 441 | ||
| STERNOCOSTAL JOINTS | 441 | ||
| INTERCHONDRAL JOINTS | 441 | ||
| COSTOCORPOREAL AND COSTOTRANSVERSE JOINTS | 441 | ||
| THORACIC INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS | 441 | ||
| Changes in Intrathoracic Volume during Ventilation | 441 | ||
| VERTICAL CHANGES | 441 | ||
| ANTERIOR-POSTERIOR AND MEDIAL-LATERAL CHANGES | 442 | ||
| MUSCULAR ACTIONS DURING VENTILATION | 443 | ||
| Muscles of Quiet Inspiration | 443 | ||
| DIAPHRAGM MUSCLE | 443 | ||
| SCALENE MUSCLES | 444 | ||
| INTERCOSTALES MUSCLES | 444 | ||
| Anatomy | 444 | ||
| Function of the Intercostales Externi and Interni Muscles | 445 | ||
| Muscles of Forced Inspiration | 446 | ||
| Muscles of Forced Expiration | 447 | ||
| ABDOMINAL MUSCLES | 447 | ||
| TRANSVERSUS THORACIS AND INTERCOSTALES INTERNI | 448 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 449 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 451 | ||
| REFERENCES | 453 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 455 | ||
| PART 1: MASTICATION | 455 | ||
| PART 2: VENTILATION | 455 | ||
| Appendix III Reference Materials for Muscle Attachments and Innervation of the Axial Skeleton | 456 | ||
| Part A: Formation of the Cauda Equina | 456 | ||
| Part B: Thoracic Dermatomes of the Trunk | 457 | ||
| Part C: Attachments and Innervation of the Muscles of the Axial Skeleton | 457 | ||
| MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK | 457 | ||
| Set 1: Muscles of The Posterior Trunk | 457 | ||
| Erector Spinae Group (Iliocostalis, Longissimus, and Spinalis Muscles) | 457 | ||
| Iliocostalis Lumborum | 457 | ||
| Iliocostalis Thoracis | 457 | ||
| Iliocostalis Cervicis | 457 | ||
| Longissimus Thoracis | 457 | ||
| Longissimus Cervicis | 457 | ||
| Longissimus Capitis | 457 | ||
| Spinalis Thoracis | 457 | ||
| Spinalis Cervicis | 457 | ||
| Spinalis Capitis (Blends with Semispinalis Capitis) | 457 | ||
| Transversospinal Group (Multifidi, Rotatores, and Semispinalis Muscles) | 458 | ||
| Multifidi | 458 | ||
| Rotatores: Longus and Brevis | 458 | ||
| Semispinalis Thoracis | 458 | ||
| Semispinalis Cervicis | 458 | ||
| Semispinalis Capitis | 458 | ||
| Short Segmental Group (Interspinalis and Intertransversarius Muscles) | 458 | ||
| Interspinalis Muscles | 458 | ||
| Intertransversarius Muscles | 458 | ||
| Set 2: Muscles of the Anterior-lateral Trunk: “Abdominal” Muscles | 458 | ||
| Obliquus Externus Abdominis | 458 | ||
| Obliquus Internus Abdominis | 458 | ||
| Rectus Abdominis | 458 | ||
| Transversus Abdominis | 458 | ||
| MUSCLES OF THE CRANIOCERVICAL REGION | 458 | ||
| Set 1: Muscles of the Anterior-lateral Craniocervical Region | 458 | ||
| Longus Capitis | 458 | ||
| Longus Colli | 458 | ||
| Superior Oblique Portion | 458 | ||
| Vertical Portion | 459 | ||
| Inferior Oblique Portion | 459 | ||
| Rectus Capitis Anterior | 459 | ||
| Rectus Capitis Lateralis | 459 | ||
| Scalenes | 459 | ||
| Scalenus Anterior | 459 | ||
| Scalenus Medius | 459 | ||
| Scalenus Posterior | 459 | ||
| Sternocleidomastoid | 459 | ||
| Set 2: Muscles of the Posterior Craniocervical Region | 459 | ||
| Splenius Capitis | 459 | ||
| Splenius Cervicis | 459 | ||
| Suboccipital Muscles | 459 | ||
| Obliquus Capitis Inferior | 459 | ||
| Obliquus Capitis Superior | 459 | ||
| Rectus Capitis Posterior Major | 459 | ||
| Rectus Capitis Posterior Minor | 459 | ||
| MISCELLANEOUS: QUADRATUS LUMBORUM | 459 | ||
| Quadratus Lumborum | 459 | ||
| PRIMARY MUSCLES OF MASTICATION | 459 | ||
| Masseter: Combined Superficial and Deep Heads | 459 | ||
| Temporalis | 460 | ||
| Medial Pterygoid: Combined Superficial and Deep Heads | 460 | ||
| Lateral Pterygoid (Superior Head) | 460 | ||
| Lateral Pterygoid (Inferior Head) | 460 | ||
| SUPRAHYOID MUSCLES | 460 | ||
| Digastric: Posterior Belly | 460 | ||
| Digastric: Anterior Belly | 460 | ||
| Geniohyoid | 460 | ||
| Mylohyoid | 460 | ||
| Stylohyoid | 460 | ||
| INFRAHYOID MUSCLES | 460 | ||
| Omohyoid | 460 | ||
| Sternohyoid | 460 | ||
| Sternothyroid | 460 | ||
| Thyrohyoid | 460 | ||
| MUSCLES RELATED PRIMARILY TO VENTILATION | 460 | ||
| Diaphragm | 460 | ||
| Inferior Attachments | 460 | ||
| Superior Attachment | 460 | ||
| Intercostales Externi | 460 | ||
| Intercostales Interni | 460 | ||
| Intercostales Intimi | 461 | ||
| Levatores Costarum (Longus and Brevis) | 461 | ||
| Serratus Posterior Inferior | 461 | ||
| Serratus Posterior Superior | 461 | ||
| Transversus Thoracis | 461 | ||
| IV Lower Extremity | 463 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 464 | ||
| Study Questions | 464 | ||
| 12 Hip | 465 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 515 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 465 | ||
| Innominate | 465 | ||
| ILIUM | 467 | ||
| PUBIS | 468 | ||
| ISCHIUM | 468 | ||
| ACETABULUM | 468 | ||
| Femur | 468 | ||
| SHAPE OF THE PROXIMAL FEMUR | 470 | ||
| Angle of Inclination | 470 | ||
| Femoral Torsion | 470 | ||
| INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF THE PROXIMAL FEMUR | 472 | ||
| Compact and Cancellous Bone | 472 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 472 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of the Hip Joint | 472 | ||
| FEMORAL HEAD | 472 | ||
| ACETABULUM | 473 | ||
| ACETABULAR LABRUM | 473 | ||
| ACETABULAR ALIGNMENT | 473 | ||
| Center-Edge Angle | 473 | ||
| Acetabular Anteversion Angle | 474 | ||
| CAPSULE AND LIGAMENTS OF THE HIP | 474 | ||
| Close-Packed Position of the Hip | 476 | ||
| Osteokinematics | 476 | ||
| FEMORAL-ON-PELVIC OSTEOKINEMATICS | 479 | ||
| Rotation of the Femur in the Sagittal Plane | 479 | ||
| Rotation of the Femur in the Frontal Plane | 479 | ||
| Rotation of the Femur in the Horizontal Plane | 479 | ||
| PELVIC-ON-FEMORAL OSTEOKINEMATICS | 479 | ||
| Lumbopelvic Rhythm | 479 | ||
| Pelvic Rotation in the Sagittal Plane: Anterior and Posterior Pelvic Tilting | 481 | ||
| Pelvic Rotation in the Frontal Plane | 481 | ||
| Pelvic Rotation in the Horizontal Plane | 481 | ||
| Arthrokinematics | 481 | ||
| MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION | 481 | ||
| Innervation of the Muscles and Joint | 481 | ||
| INNERVATION OF MUSCLES | 481 | ||
| Lumbar Plexus | 481 | ||
| Sacral Plexus | 482 | ||
| SENSORY INNERVATION OF THE HIP | 482 | ||
| Muscular Function at the Hip | 484 | ||
| HIP FLEXOR MUSCLES | 484 | ||
| Anatomy and Individual Action | 484 | ||
| Overall Function | 486 | ||
| Pelvic-on-Femoral Hip Flexion: Anterior Pelvic Tilt | 486 | ||
| Femoral-on-Pelvic Hip Flexion | 486 | ||
| HIP ADDUCTOR MUSCLES | 487 | ||
| Functional Anatomy | 487 | ||
| Overall Function | 489 | ||
| Frontal Plane Function | 489 | ||
| Sagittal Plane Function | 490 | ||
| HIP INTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES | 490 | ||
| Overall Function | 490 | ||
| Biomechanics of the Adductor Muscles as Internal Rotators of the Hip | 491 | ||
| HIP EXTENSOR MUSCLES | 491 | ||
| Anatomy and Individual Action | 491 | ||
| Overall Function | 492 | ||
| Pelvic-on-Femoral Hip Extension | 492 | ||
| Hip Extensors Performing a Posterior Pelvic Tilt. | 492 | ||
| Hip Extensors Controlling a Forward Lean of the Body. | 493 | ||
| Femoral-on-Pelvic Hip Extension | 494 | ||
| HIP ABDUCTOR MUSCLES | 494 | ||
| Anatomy and Individual Action | 494 | ||
| Hip Abductor Mechanism: Control of Frontal Plane Stability of the Pelvis during Walking | 495 | ||
| Hip Abductor Mechanism: Role in the Production of Compression Force at the Hip | 495 | ||
| Maximal Abduction Torque Varies According to Hip Joint Angle | 496 | ||
| HIP EXTERNAL ROTATOR MUSCLES | 498 | ||
| Functional Anatomy of the “Short External Rotators” | 498 | ||
| Overall Function | 499 | ||
| MAXIMAL TORQUE PRODUCED BY THE HIP MUSCLES | 499 | ||
| EXAMPLES OF HIP DISEASE: RATIONALE FOR SELECTED THERAPEUTIC AND SURGICAL INTERVENTIONS | 500 | ||
| Fracture of the Hip | 500 | ||
| Osteoarthritis of the Hip | 501 | ||
| Therapeutic Intervention for a Painful or Mechanically Unstable Hip | 501 | ||
| USING A CANE AND PROPER METHODS FOR CARRYING EXTERNAL LOADS | 501 | ||
| Surgical Intervention after Fracture or Osteoarthritis | 504 | ||
| BIOMECHANICAL CONSEQUENCES OF COXA VARA AND COXA VALGA | 504 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 505 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 507 | ||
| REFERENCES | 515 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 519 | ||
| 13 Knee | 520 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 520 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 520 | ||
| Distal Femur | 520 | ||
| Proximal Tibia and Fibula | 521 | ||
| Patella | 522 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 523 | ||
| General Anatomic and Alignment Considerations | 523 | ||
| Capsule and Reinforcing Ligaments | 524 | ||
| Synovial Membrane, Bursae, and Fat Pads | 525 | ||
| Tibiofemoral Joint | 526 | ||
| MENISCI | 526 | ||
| Anatomic Considerations | 526 | ||
| Functional Considerations | 527 | ||
| Common Mechanisms of Injury | 528 | ||
| OSTEOKINEMATICS AT THE TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT | 528 | ||
| Flexion and Extension | 529 | ||
| Internal and External (Axial) Rotation | 529 | ||
| ARTHROKINEMATICS AT THE TIBIOFEMORAL JOINT | 530 | ||
| Extension of the Knee | 530 | ||
| “Screw-Home” Rotation of the Knee | 530 | ||
| Flexion of the Knee | 531 | ||
| Internal and External (Axial) Rotation of the Knee | 531 | ||
| MEDIAL AND LATERAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENTS | 531 | ||
| Anatomic Considerations | 531 | ||
| Functional Considerations | 531 | ||
| ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENTS | 532 | ||
| General Considerations | 532 | ||
| ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT | 534 | ||
| Anatomy and Function | 534 | ||
| Common Mechanisms of Injury | 535 | ||
| POSTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT | 536 | ||
| Anatomy and Function | 536 | ||
| Common Mechanisms of Injury | 537 | ||
| Patellofemoral Joint | 537 | ||
| PATELLOFEMORAL JOINT KINEMATICS | 538 | ||
| Path and Area of Patellar Contact on the Femur | 538 | ||
| MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION | 539 | ||
| Innervation of the Muscles | 539 | ||
| Sensory Innervation of the Knee Joint | 539 | ||
| Muscular Function at the Knee | 539 | ||
| EXTENSORS OF THE KNEE: QUADRICEPS FEMORIS MUSCLE | 539 | ||
| Anatomic Considerations | 539 | ||
| Functional Considerations | 541 | ||
| Quadriceps Action at the Knee: Understanding the Biomechanical Interactions between External and Internal Torques | 541 | ||
| External Torque Demands Placed against the Quadriceps: Contrasting “Tibial-on-Femoral” with “Femoral-on-Tibial” Methods of Knee Extension | 541 | ||
| Internal Torque–Joint Angle Relationship of the Quadriceps Muscle | 541 | ||
| Functional Role of the Patella. | 543 | ||
| PATELLOFEMORAL JOINT KINETICS | 544 | ||
| FACTORS AFFECTING THE TRACKING OF THE PATELLA ACROSS THE PATELLOFEMORAL JOINT | 545 | ||
| Role of the Quadriceps Muscle in Patellar Tracking | 545 | ||
| Factors that Naturally Oppose the Lateral Pull of the Quadriceps on the Patella | 546 | ||
| Local Factors | 546 | ||
| Global Factors | 547 | ||
| Summary | 549 | ||
| KNEE FLEXOR-ROTATOR MUSCLES | 549 | ||
| Functional Anatomy | 550 | ||
| Group Action of Flexor-Rotator Muscles | 550 | ||
| Control of Tibial-on-Femoral Osteokinematics | 551 | ||
| Control of Femoral-on-Tibial Osteokinematics | 551 | ||
| Maximal Torque Production of the Knee Flexor-Rotator Muscles | 552 | ||
| Abnormal Alignment of the Knee | 552 | ||
| FRONTAL PLANE | 552 | ||
| Genu Varum with Unicompartmental Osteoarthritis of the Knee | 552 | ||
| Excessive Genu Valgum | 553 | ||
| SAGITTAL PLANE | 554 | ||
| Genu Recurvatum | 554 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 556 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 557 | ||
| REFERENCES | 566 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 572 | ||
| 14 Ankle and Foot | 573 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 573 | ||
| OSTEOLOGY | 573 | ||
| Basic Terms and Concepts | 573 | ||
| NAMING THE JOINTS AND REGIONS | 573 | ||
| OSTEOLOGIC SIMILARITIES BETWEEN THE DISTAL LEG AND THE DISTAL ARM | 574 | ||
| Individual Bones | 574 | ||
| FIBULA | 574 | ||
| DISTAL TIBIA | 575 | ||
| TARSAL BONES | 575 | ||
| Talus | 575 | ||
| Calcaneus | 575 | ||
| Navicular | 577 | ||
| Medial, Intermediate, and Lateral Cuneiforms | 577 | ||
| Cuboid | 577 | ||
| RAYS OF THE FOOT | 578 | ||
| Metatarsals | 578 | ||
| Phalanges | 578 | ||
| ARTHROLOGY | 578 | ||
| Terminology Used to Describe Movements | 578 | ||
| Structure and Function of the Joints Associated with the Ankle | 579 | ||
| PROXIMAL TIBIOFIBULAR JOINT | 579 | ||
| DISTAL TIBIOFIBULAR JOINT | 579 | ||
| TALOCRURAL JOINT | 580 | ||
| Articular Structure | 580 | ||
| Ligaments | 580 | ||
| Osteokinematics | 582 | ||
| Arthrokinematics | 584 | ||
| Progressive Stabilization of the Talocrural Joint throughout the Stance Phase of Gait | 584 | ||
| Structure and Function of the Joints Associated with the Foot | 585 | ||
| SUBTALAR JOINT | 585 | ||
| Articular Structure | 585 | ||
| Ligaments | 586 | ||
| Kinematics | 586 | ||
| Range of Motion | 587 | ||
| TRANSVERSE TARSAL JOINT (TALONAVICULAR AND CALCANEOCUBOID JOINTS) | 587 | ||
| Articular Structure and Ligamentous Support | 589 | ||
| Talonavicular Joint | 589 | ||
| Calcaneocuboid Joint | 589 | ||
| Kinematics | 590 | ||
| Axes of Rotation and Corresponding Movements | 590 | ||
| Arthrokinematics | 590 | ||
| Medial Longitudinal Arch of the Foot | 593 | ||
| Passive Support Mechanism of the Medial Longitudinal Arch | 593 | ||
| Pes Planus—“Abnormally Dropped” Medial Longitudinal Arch | 594 | ||
| COMBINED ACTION OF THE SUBTALAR AND TRANSVERSE TARSAL JOINTS | 594 | ||
| Early to Mid-Stance Phase of Gait: Kinematics of Pronation at the Subtalar Joint | 595 | ||
| Biomechanical Benefits of Limiting Pronation during the Stance Phase | 597 | ||
| Biomechanical Consequences of Abnormal Pronation during the Stance Phase | 598 | ||
| Mid-to-Late Stance Phase of Gait: Kinematics of Supination at the Subtalar Joint | 598 | ||
| DISTAL INTERTARSAL JOINTS | 599 | ||
| Basic Structure and Function | 600 | ||
| Cuneonavicular Joint | 600 | ||
| Cuboideonavicular Joint | 600 | ||
| Intercuneiform and Cuneocuboid Joint Complex | 600 | ||
| TARSOMETATARSAL JOINTS | 600 | ||
| Anatomic Considerations | 600 | ||
| Kinematic Considerations | 600 | ||
| INTERMETATARSAL JOINTS | 601 | ||
| Structure and Function | 601 | ||
| METATARSOPHALANGEAL JOINTS | 601 | ||
| Anatomic Considerations | 601 | ||
| Kinematic Considerations | 602 | ||
| Deformities or Trauma Involving the Metatarsophalangeal Joint of the Great Toe | 602 | ||
| Hallux Limitus | 602 | ||
| Hallux Valgus | 603 | ||
| INTERPHALANGEAL JOINTS | 603 | ||
| ACTION OF THE JOINTS WITHIN THE FOREFOOT DURING THE LATE STANCE PHASE OF GAIT | 604 | ||
| MUSCLE AND JOINT INTERACTION | 605 | ||
| Innervation of Muscles and Joints | 605 | ||
| INNERVATION OF MUSCLES | 605 | ||
| SENSORY INNERVATION OF THE JOINTS | 606 | ||
| Anatomy and Function of the Muscles | 606 | ||
| EXTRINSIC MUSCLES | 607 | ||
| Anterior Compartment Muscles | 607 | ||
| Anatomy | 607 | ||
| Joint Action | 608 | ||
| Lateral Compartment Muscles | 608 | ||
| Anatomy | 608 | ||
| Joint Action | 609 | ||
| Posterior Compartment Muscles | 610 | ||
| Anatomy | 610 | ||
| Superficial Group. | 610 | ||
| Deep Group. | 611 | ||
| Joint Action | 612 | ||
| Activation of the Plantar Flexor and Supinator Muscles during Walking. | 613 | ||
| Plantar Flexion Torque Generated for Propulsion. | 613 | ||
| MUSCULAR PARALYSIS AFTER INJURY TO THE FIBULAR OR TIBIAL NERVE | 614 | ||
| Injury to the Common Fibular Nerve and Its Branches | 614 | ||
| Injury to the Tibial Nerve and Its Branches | 615 | ||
| INTRINSIC MUSCLES | 615 | ||
| Anatomic and Functional Considerations | 615 | ||
| Layer 1 | 616 | ||
| Layer 2 | 616 | ||
| Layer 3 | 616 | ||
| Layer 4 | 617 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 617 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 619 | ||
| REFERENCES | 624 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 626 | ||
| 15 Kinesiology of Walking | 627 | ||
| CHAPTER AT A GLANCE | 627 | ||
| HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF GAIT ANALYSIS | 628 | ||
| SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL DESCRIPTORS | 630 | ||
| Gait Cycle | 630 | ||
| Stance and Swing Phases | 633 | ||
| SUBDIVISION OF STANCE AND SWING PHASES | 635 | ||
| DISPLACEMENT AND CONTROL OF THE BODY’S CENTER OF MASS | 636 | ||
| Displacement of the Center of Mass | 636 | ||
| Kinetic and Potential Energy Considerations | 638 | ||
| JOINT KINEMATICS | 639 | ||
| Sagittal Plane Kinematics | 639 | ||
| PELVIS | 639 | ||
| HIP | 639 | ||
| KNEE | 640 | ||
| ANKLE (TALOCRURAL JOINT) | 640 | ||
| FIRST TARSOMETATARSAL JOINT | 641 | ||
| FIRST METATARSOPHALANGEAL JOINT | 641 | ||
| Frontal Plane Kinematics | 641 | ||
| PELVIS | 642 | ||
| HIP | 642 | ||
| KNEE | 642 | ||
| ANKLE (TALOCRURAL JOINT) | 644 | ||
| FOOT AND SUBTALAR JOINT | 644 | ||
| Horizontal Plane Kinematics | 645 | ||
| PELVIS | 645 | ||
| FEMUR | 645 | ||
| TIBIA | 645 | ||
| HIP | 645 | ||
| KNEE | 646 | ||
| ANKLE AND FOOT | 646 | ||
| Trunk and Upper Extremity Kinematics | 646 | ||
| TRUNK | 646 | ||
| SHOULDER | 646 | ||
| ELBOW | 646 | ||
| ENERGY EXPENDITURE | 647 | ||
| Energy-Saving Strategies of Walking | 648 | ||
| VERTICAL DISPLACEMENT OF THE CENTER OF MASS | 648 | ||
| SIDE-TO-SIDE DISPLACEMENT OF THE CENTER OF MASS | 649 | ||
| MUSCLE ACTIVITY | 650 | ||
| Trunk | 650 | ||
| ERECTOR SPINAE | 650 | ||
| RECTUS ABDOMINIS | 650 | ||
| Hip | 650 | ||
| HIP EXTENSORS | 650 | ||
| HIP FLEXORS | 651 | ||
| HIP ABDUCTORS | 651 | ||
| HIP ADDUCTORS AND HIP ROTATORS | 652 | ||
| Knee | 653 | ||
| KNEE EXTENSORS | 653 | ||
| KNEE FLEXORS | 653 | ||
| Ankle and Foot | 653 | ||
| TIBIALIS ANTERIOR | 653 | ||
| EXTENSOR DIGITORUM AND EXTENSOR HALLUCIS LONGUS | 653 | ||
| ANKLE PLANTAR FLEXORS | 653 | ||
| TIBIALIS POSTERIOR | 654 | ||
| FIBULARIS MUSCLES | 655 | ||
| INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE FOOT | 655 | ||
| KINETICS | 655 | ||
| Ground Reaction Forces | 655 | ||
| VERTICAL FORCES | 655 | ||
| ANTERIOR-POSTERIOR FORCES | 656 | ||
| MEDIAL-LATERAL FORCES | 657 | ||
| Path of the Center of Pressure | 657 | ||
| Joint Torques and Powers | 657 | ||
| HIP | 658 | ||
| KNEE | 659 | ||
| ANKLE | 662 | ||
| Joint and Tendon Forces | 663 | ||
| GAIT DYSFUNCTIONS | 663 | ||
| SYNOPSIS | 671 | ||
| Additional Clinical Connections | 672 | ||
| REFERENCES | 677 | ||
| STUDY QUESTIONS | 681 | ||
| Appendix IV Reference Materials for Muscle Attachments and Innervation of the Lower Extremity | 682 | ||
| Part A: Spinal Nerve Root Innervations of the Muscles of the Lower Extremity | 683 | ||
| Part B: Key Muscles for Testing the Function of Spinal Nerve Roots (L2 to S3) | 684 | ||
| Part C: Dermatomes of the Lower Extremity | 684 | ||
| Part D: Attachments and Innervation of the Muscles of the Lower Extremity | 685 | ||
| HIP AND KNEE MUSCULATURE | 685 | ||
| Adductor Brevis | 685 | ||
| Adductor Longus | 685 | ||
| Adductor Magnus | 685 | ||
| Anterior Head | 685 | ||
| Posterior (Extensor) Head | 685 | ||
| Articularis Genu | 685 | ||
| Biceps Femoris | 685 | ||
| Long Head | 685 | ||
| Short Head | 685 | ||
| Gemellus Inferior | 685 | ||
| Gemellus Superior | 685 | ||
| Gluteus Maximus | 685 | ||
| Gluteus Medius | 685 | ||
| Gluteus Minimus | 685 | ||
| Gracilis | 685 | ||
| Iliopsoas | 685 | ||
| Psoas Major | 685 | ||
| Iliacus | 685 | ||
| Obturator Externus | 685 | ||
| Obturator Internus | 685 | ||
| Pectineus | 686 | ||
| Piriformis | 686 | ||
| Popliteus | 686 | ||
| Psoas Minor | 686 | ||
| Quadratus Femoris | 686 | ||
| Rectus Femoris | 686 | ||
| Sartorius | 686 | ||
| Semimembranosus | 686 | ||
| Semitendinosus | 686 | ||
| Tensor Fasciae Latae | 686 | ||
| Vastus Intermedius | 686 | ||
| Vastus Lateralis | 686 | ||
| Vastus Medialis | 686 | ||
| ANKLE AND FOOT MUSCULATURE | 686 | ||
| Extensor Digitorum Longus | 686 | ||
| Extensor Hallucis Longus | 686 | ||
| Fibularis (Peroneus) Brevis | 687 | ||
| Fibularis (Peroneus) Longus | 687 | ||
| Fibularis (Peroneus) Tertius | 687 | ||
| Flexor Digitorum Longus | 687 | ||
| Flexor Hallucis Longus | 687 | ||
| Gastrocnemius | 687 | ||
| Plantaris | 687 | ||
| Soleus | 687 | ||
| Tibialis Anterior | 687 | ||
| Tibialis Posterior | 687 | ||
| INTRINSIC MUSCLES OF THE FOOT | 687 | ||
| Extensor Digitorum Brevis | 687 | ||
| LAYER 1 | 687 | ||
| Abductor Digiti Minimi | 687 | ||
| Abductor Hallucis | 687 | ||
| Flexor Digitorum Brevis | 687 | ||
| LAYER 2 | 687 | ||
| Lumbricals | 687 | ||
| Quadratus Plantae | 688 | ||
| LAYER 3 | 688 | ||
| Adductor Hallucis | 688 | ||
| Proximal Attachment | 688 | ||
| Flexor Digiti Minimi | 688 | ||
| Flexor Hallucis Brevis | 688 | ||
| LAYER 4 | 688 | ||
| Dorsal Interossei | 688 | ||
| Index | 689 | ||
| A | 689 | ||
| B | 691 | ||
| C | 692 | ||
| D | 694 | ||
| E | 695 | ||
| F | 696 | ||
| G | 699 | ||
| H | 700 | ||
| I | 702 | ||
| J | 704 | ||
| K | 705 | ||
| L | 706 | ||
| M | 708 | ||
| N | 710 | ||
| O | 710 | ||
| P | 711 | ||
| Q | 714 | ||
| R | 714 | ||
| S | 716 | ||
| T | 720 | ||
| U | 723 | ||
| V | 723 | ||
| W | 724 | ||
| X | 725 | ||
| Y | 725 | ||
| Z | 725 |