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Crash Course Medical Ethics and Sociology Updated Edition - E-Book

Crash Course Medical Ethics and Sociology Updated Edition - E-Book

Andrew Papanikitas | Daniel Horton-Szar | Carolyn Johnston | David Armstrong

(2015)

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Book Details

Abstract

Crash Course – your effective everyday study companion PLUS the perfect antidote for exam stress! Save time and be assured you have all the core information you need in one place to excel on your course and achieve exam success.

A winning formula now for over 15 years, each volume has been fine-tuned and fully updated, with an improved layout tailored to make your life easier. Especially written by junior doctors – those who understand what is essential for exam success – with all information thoroughly checked and quality assured by expert Faculty Advisers, the result is a series of books which exactly meets your needs and you know you can trust.

The importance of ethics and sociology as applied cannot be underestimated, within both the medical curriculum and everyday modern clinical practice. Medical students and junior doctors cannot hope to experience every dilemma first hand, but are expected to deal with new and problematic clinical situations in a reasoned, professional and systematic way. This volume, which accounts for the revised core curriculum in Medical Ethics and Law, will prove an indispensable companion.

    • More than 80 line artworks, tables and boxes present clinical, diagnostic and practical information in an easy-to-follow manner
    • Friendly and accessible approach to the subject makes learning especially easy
    • Written by junior doctors for students - authors who understand exam pressures
    • Contains ‘Hints and Tips’ boxes, and other useful aide-mémoires
    • Succinct coverage of the subject enables ‘sharp focus’ and efficient use of time during exam preparation
    • Contains a fully updated self-assessment section - ideal for honing exam skills and self-testing
  • Self-assessment section fully updated to reflect current exam requirements
  • Contains ‘common exam pitfalls’ as advised by faculty
  • Crash Courses also available electronically

Crash Course – your effective everyday study companion PLUS the perfect antidote for exam stress! Save time and be assured you have all the core information you need in one place to excel on your course and achieve exam success.

A winning formula now for over 15 years, each volume has been fine-tuned and fully updated, with an improved layout tailored to make your life easier. Especially written by junior doctors – those who understand what is essential for exam success – with all information thoroughly checked and quality assured by expert Faculty Advisers, the result is a series of books which exactly meets your needs and you know you can trust.

The importance of ethics and sociology as applied cannot be underestimated, within both the medical curriculum and everyday modern clinical practice. Medical students and junior doctors cannot hope to experience every dilemma first hand, but are expected to deal with new and problematic clinical situations in a reasoned, professional and systematic way. This volume, which accounts for the revised core curriculum in Medical Ethics and Law, will prove an indispensable companion.


Table of Contents

Section Title Page Action Price
Front Cover Cover
Copyright iv
Series editor foreword v
Prefaces vii
Author vii
Faculty Advisor vii
Acknowledgements ix
Dedication xi
Contents xiii
Chapter 1: Foundations of medical ethics and law 1
WHAT IS `MEDICAL ETHICS´ AND WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? 1
THE CORE CURRICULUM IN MEDICAL ETHICS AND LAW 1
ETHICAL ARGUMENTS 2
ETHICAL THEORIES 3
Utilitarianism 3
Deontology 4
Virtue theory 5
Values-based medicine 6
THE FOUR PRINCIPLES 6
Respect for autonomy 6
Beneficence and non-maleficence 6
Justice 7
EMPIRICAL BIOETHICS 7
WHY IS ALL THIS IMPORTANT IN MEDICINE? 7
AN INTRODUCTION TO MEDICAL LAW 8
The role of the law 8
Case law 8
Statute law 9
Legal rights and the Human Rights Act 9
Article 2: Right to life (Absolute Right) 9
Article 3: Prohibition of torture, inhuman and degrading treatment (Absolute Right) 9
Article 8: Right to respect for private and family Life (Qualified Right) 9
Article 9: Freedom of thought, conscience and religion (Qualified Right) 9
Article 12: Right to marry and found a family (Qualified Right) 9
Article 14: Right to protection from discrimination (Qualified Right) 9
Medical negligence 10
Breach of the duty of care 10
References 11
Further reading 11
Chapter 2: Professionalism and medical ethics 13
PROFESSIONALISM, OATHS AND DECLARATIONS 13
Professional regulation 13
The General Medical Council 13
DUTIES FOR MEDICAL STUDENTS 14
The Royal Medical Colleges 15
The British Medical Association 15
Ethical issues faced by medical students 15
Medical indemnity 16
Trust, honesty and truth-telling 16
Telling the truth 16
Scenario 1 16
Scenario 2 17
Telling the whole truth and the law: therapeutic privilege 17
CONFIDENTIALITY 17
Legal regulation of confidentiality and disclosure 18
Case discussion (adapted from Hope et al. 2003): 18
Statutory basis of confidentiality and patients´ access to healthcare records 18
When should confidential information be disclosed? 19
Laws which permit or require disclosure of confidential information 20
Case discussion: Mr S 20
Case discussion: Mr L 21
CONSCIENCE AND PERSONAL BELIEFS 21
DISCLOSURE OF MISTAKES AND MISCONDUCT 22
Ethics and occupational health 23
PROFESSIONAL BOUNDARIES 23
Power relationships 23
Boundary violations 23
Blurred professional boundaries and the use of social media 23
Key points: 23
Sexualized behaviour 24
But what if I practise in a remote location and everyone in the local community is my patient? 24
Chaperones 24
What is an intimate examination? 24
In the consultation 25
Intimate examinations under anaesthetic 25
Financial dealings and gifts 25
Treating friends and family and doctors as patients 26
Scenario 26
A PROFESSIONAL APPROACH TO RESEARCH ETHICS 26
A brief history of ethics guidelines in medical research 26
1932-1970 26
1940-1945 26
1949 26
1954 27
1964 27
1968 27
1984 and 1990 27
1991-2001 27
2001 27
2004 27
2009 27
The ethical issues at stake in medical research 27
Research on vulnerable groups 28
Research in children 28
Research in incapacitated adults and adults with mental disabilities 29
Animal research 29
Researching healthcare staff and students 29
Publication ethics 30
References 30
Further reading 31
Chapter 3: The doctor, the patient and society 33
CONSENT 33
COMPETENCE 33
Clinical scenario 34
SOME LEGAL CASES ILLUSTRATING THE BROAD NATURE AND PURPOSE OF TREATMENT 34
VOLUNTARINESS 34
SUFFICIENT INFORMATION 34
THE MENTAL CAPACITY ACT 2005 (MCA 2005) 35
Medical treatment without capacity 36
Clinical scenario 36
Deprivation of liberty 36
CHILDREN 36
Why does the clinical care of children raise ethical issues? 36
Example: male circumcision 36
Children and the Law 37
The Children Act 1989 (amended 2004) 38
Children and consent 38
Gillick competence and the Fraser guidelines 38
Children and the refusal of treatment 39
Child abuse 40
If you are worried that a child is at significant risk of harm, what should you do? 40
Child protection orders 41
Specific issue order 41
Care and supervision order 41
Emergency protection order 41
Child assessment order 41
Other laws relevant to child welfare 41
LEGAL AND ETHICAL ASPECTS OF MEDICAL CARE OF OLDER PEOPLE 41
Driving in later life 41
Testamentary capacity 42
Age discrimination 42
Elder abuse 42
MENTAL HEALTH AND MENTAL ILLNESS 43
The ethical justification for psychiatric treatment 43
The Mental Health Act 1983 (2007) 44
So why do we need a Mental Health Act in addition to a Mental Capacity Act? 45
References 45
Further reading 46
Chapter 4: Ethics and law at the beginning and end of life 47
CONTRACEPTION 47
A legal distinction between contraception and abortion? 47
STERILIZATION 47
Failed sterilization 48
Sterilization and the mentally incompetent 48
THE HUMAN EMBRYO 48
The embryo is morally valuable because it is a human organism 49
The embryo is morally valuable because it is a potential human being 49
The embryo/fetus is morally valuable if it is a `person´ 49
The embryo is morally valuable because it is valued by others 49
The moral value of the embryo increases as it continues to develop 50
ABORTION 50
Abortion legislation 50
The ethical arguments for and against abortion 51
The mother-fetus conflict 51
Clinical dilemma: Part I 51
Clinical dilemma: Part II 52
ASSISTED REPRODUCTION 52
Gamete donation 52
In-vitro fertilization 52
Surrogacy 53
Assisted reproduction separates sex from reproduction 53
Assisted reproduction alters the nature of traditional relationships 53
Assisted reproduction perpetuates negative social attitudes towards infertile women 53
Assisted reproduction leads to the exploitation of women 53
Assisted reproduction is not sufficiently important to be provided on the NHS 54
Assisted reproduction will lead to social and eugenic selection 54
General ethical approaches to assisted reproduction 54
Assisted reproduction and legislation 54
Artificial insemination 55
Artificial insemination from the husband/the male partner (AIH) 55
Artificial insemination with sperm from a donor (AID) 55
Activities which are unlawful under the HFE Act 1990 (Amended 2008) 55
GENETIC COUNSELLING AND SCREENING 56
Clinical dilemma 56
The father 56
The fiancée and future children 56
The daughter 56
CLONING 57
The loss of genetic variation argument 57
The `it is unnatural´ argument 58
Clones are not `unique´ 58
Psychological harm to the clone 58
The commodification of children 58
THE END OF LIFE 58
The sanctity of life or the value of life? 58
Acts and omissions 59
Withholding and withdrawing life-sustaining treatment 59
Treatment and basic care 60
Do not attempt resuscitation orders 60
Futility 60
Neonates 60
Adults 60
Euthanasia 61
Ethical arguments for and against assisted suicide and euthanasia 61
Arguments for euthanasia (adapted from Hope et al. 2008) 61
Consistency 61
Appeal to principles 61
Arguments against euthanasia (adapted from Hope et al 2008) 62
Improvements in palliative care mean euthanasia is unnecessary 62
Availability of euthanasia means advances in medicine are less likely 62
Exploitation by others 62
Slippery-slope objections 62
Contrary to the aims of medicine 62
The law and euthanasia 62
Important cases in the development of case law on euthanasia 62
The law on encouraging or assisting suicide 63
Public interest factors (summary) affecting the decision over prosecution with potential relevance for doctors (Director of... 63
Factors tending in favour of prosecution 63
Factors tending against prosecution 64
Assisted suicide and human rights: The case of Dianne Pretty 64
Doctrine of double-effect 64
Painkillers and the DDE 64
DEATH: WHEN DOES `DEATH´ OCCUR 65
Is brain-death a sufficient condition for defining death? 65
ORGAN TRANSPLANTATION 65
Willingness to receive 66
Willingness to give 66
The law and organ transplantation 66
The Human Tissue Act and organ transplants 66
The ethics of organ transplantation 67
Cadaveric organ donation 67
Organ donation from living people 67
Methods of increasing organ supply 67
Mandated choice 67
Presumed consent (an `opt-out´ system) 67
Organ markets 68
Xenotransplantation 68
References 68
Further reading 69
Chapter 5: Healthcare commissioning and resource allocation 71
COMMISSIONING AND RESOURCE ALLOCATION 71
What is need? 71
What should count as health care? 71
The two levels of resource allocation 72
Are there any particular ethical concerns regarding commissioning? 72
Conflicts of interest 72
Transparency 72
Patient involvement in decision-making 72
The role of the private sector 72
Safeguarding local NHS services 73
WHY IS RESOURCE ALLOCATION NECESSARY? 73
Utilitarianism and quality-adjusted life years 74
Objections to quality-adjusted life years 74
Rawls' theory of justice 75
A theory of resource allocation in the healthcare setting 75
Exceptions 75
Exercise 76
Organ transplantation and resource allocation 76
Challenging resource-allocation decisions in the courts 77
Judicial review 77
Negligence 77
References 77
Chapter 6: Introduction to sociology and disease 79
WHY IS SOCIOLOGY IMPORTANT TO MEDICAL STUDENTS? 79
SOCIAL CAUSES OF DISEASE 79
What is a `cause´ of disease? 79
Theories of disease causation 80
Germ theory 80
Epidemiological triangle 81
Web of causation 81
General susceptibility 81
Socioenvironmental approach 81
SOCIAL STRUCTURES AND HEALTH 81
Social integration, support and life events 81
Adverse life events 82
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CHANGE 82
IATROGENESIS: DOES HEALTH CARE CREATE DISEASE? 83
References 84
Further reading 84
Chapter 7: Experience of health and illness 85
ILLNESS BEHAVIOUR AND THE SICK ROLE 85
Illness behaviour 85
Lay referral and self-help 87
Alternative and complementary medicine 88
Normality in disease 89
Statistical basis 89
Bio-statistical basis 89
Normative basis 90
The sick role 90
Social deviancy 90
Labelling 90
Stigma in disease 91
THE DOCTOR-PATIENT RELATIONSHIP 92
How the doctor-patient relationship is changing 92
Models of the doctor-patient relationship 93
The patient-centred consultation 94
Patients´ agendas 95
Conflict in the doctor-patient relationship 95
Resolving conflict in the doctor-patient relationship 95
Compliance and concordance 97
HOSPITALS AND PATIENTS 98
CHRONIC DISEASE 99
Living with chronic illness 100
DEATH AND BEREAVEMENT 101
The stages of dying 101
Place of death 103
At home 103
In a hospice 103
In a hospital 103
In retirement villages 103
Awareness of dying 103
Outcomes of open awareness 103
Bereavement and loss 104
References 105
Further reading 106
Chapter 8: Organization of healthcare provision in the UK 107
BEFORE THE NHS 107
NATIONAL HEALTH INSURANCE 107
THE BIRTH OF THE NHS 107
Evolution 108
Current organization 108
OTHER SYSTEMS FOR ORGANIZING AND FUNDING HEALTH CARE 111
HEALTH PROFESSIONS 111
Health professions and multidisciplinary working 111
THE HOLISTIC MODEL 112
CARE IN THE COMMUNITY 112
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS 113
References 114
Further reading 114
Chapter 9: Inequalities in health and healthcare provision 115
IMPACT OF SOCIAL CLASS 115
Social stratification 115
Variations in health according to social class 117
Why do such profound differences in health exist? 117
Relative vs absolute deprivation 121
Reducing inequality between social classes I and V 122
GENDER DIFFERENCES 123
Levels of gender health differences 123
Mortality 123
Morbidity 123
Childhood and adolescence 123
Female longevity 124
Young people and working adults 124
Elderly adults 125
Explaining the gender health differences 125
Artefact 126
Genetic/biological explanations 126
Social causation 126
ETHNIC MINORITIES 127
A brief history of immigration to the UK 127
Characteristics of ethnic minority groups 127
The health of ethnic minorities 127
Mortality 128
Morbidity 128
Long-standing and limiting long-standing illness 128
Acute sickness 128
Cardiovascular disease 128
Hypertension 128
Diabetes 129
Explanations for variation in cardiovascular disease 129
Mental illness 129
Explanations for variations in mental illness 129
Use of health services 129
General explanations for variations in mortality and morbidity 129
THE AGEING POPULATION 130
The changing population 130
Social factors compounding medical problems in older people 131
Ageing and health policy 131
Sociological views and older people 131
General explanations for health inequalities in older people 132
References 132
Further reading 133
Chapter 10: Epidemiology and public health 135
INTRODUCTION 135
TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGICAL RESEARCH 135
Ecological study 135
Cross-sectional studies 135
Case-control study 136
Cohort studies 136
Prospective and retrospective cohort studies 137
Trials and meta-analyses 137
MEASURES OF HEALTH AND TREATMENT OUTCOMES 137
Mortality rates 137
Potential years of life lost 138
Quality-adjusted life years 138
Advantages 138
Disadvantages 138
Morbidity (illness) rates 138
Health service use measures 138
Illness self-report rates 138
MEASURES OF DISEASE OCCURRENCE 138
Incidence 139
Cumulative incidence 139
Incidence density 139
Prevalence 139
CAUSAL ASSOCIATION 139
MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION BETWEEN EXPOSURE AND DISEASE 140
Relative risk 140
Attributable risk 141
Odds ratio 141
THE CHANGING PATTERN OF DISEASE 141
The changing pattern of disease and society 141
Pre-agricultural society 141
Agricultural society 142
Modern industrial societies 142
`Developing world´ diseases 142
MEASURING THE HEALTH OF A NATION 142
Demographic data 143
Mortality data 144
Morbidity data 144
DEATH CERTIFICATION 144
PREVENTION 144
Primary prevention 144
Secondary prevention 144
Tertiary prevention 144
HEALTH PROMOTION 145
The Quality and Outcomes Framework 145
NATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR HEALTH IMPROVEMENT 145
SCREENING 146
Purpose of screening 147
Mass, targeted, systematic or opportunistic screening 147
Evaluating screening programmes 147
Feasibility 147
Effectiveness 147
Cost 148
Possible harms caused by screening 148
Some important screening tests used today 148
Cervical cancer 148
Breast cancer 149
COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 149
IMMUNIZATION 150
MANAGEMENT OF DISEASE OUTBREAKS 150
Principles of surveillance 151
Steps in controlling an outbreak 151
References 152
Further reading 152
Chapter 11: Clinical governance 153
WHAT IS CLINICAL GOVERNANCE? 153
EVIDENCE-BASED MEDICINE (CLINICAL EFFECTIVENESS) 154
Why practise evidence-based medicine? 154
Abbreviations and terms 155
Grades of recommendation 155
How to practise evidence-based medicine 155
WHAT IS CLINICAL AUDIT? 155
Why should I learn about it? 157
Audit vs research 158
The audit cycle 158
Choosing a topic 158
Setting standards 159
Assessment in audit 159
Comparing current practice with the standard (data analysis) 160
Implementing change 161
Closing the loop: re-audit 161
Other characteristics of audit 161
Confidentiality 161
Multidisciplinary and open discussion 161
Types of audit 161
Why audit does not always work 162
How to do your own audit 162
RISK MANAGEMENT 162
THE NHS COMPLAINTS PROCEDURE 163
ERRORS AND SIGNIFICANT EVENT AUDIT 163
Violations 164
References 165
Further reading 165
Self-assessment: Self-assessment 167
Single best answer questions (SBAs) 169
Extended-matching questions (EMQs) 175
Short-answer questions (SAQs) 179
Essay questions 181
SBA answers 183
EMQ answers 185
Objective structured clinical examination questions (OSCEs) 187
General advice for all OSCEs 187
These are a few examples of ideas that could form the basis of a clinical examination station 187
Some relevant ideas that may help you improve your OSCE performance in the above scenrarios 187
Further reading 188
Index 189
ExamPrep ES3