BOOK
Biology: Pearson New International Edition
Gerald Audesirk | Teresa Audesirk | Bruce E. Byers
(2013)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Biology: Life on Earth with Physiology, Tenth Edition continues this book’s tradition of engaging non-majors biology students with real-world applications, high-interest case studies, and inquiry-based pedagogy that fosters a lifetime of discovery and scientific literacy.
Maintaining the friendly writing style that has made the book a best-seller, the Tenth Edition continues to incorporate true and relevant stories using a chapter-opening Case Study that is revisited throughout the chapter and concluded at the end of the chapter. New to the Tenth Edition are Learning Goals and Check Your Learning questions that help students assess their understanding of the core concepts in biology. To increase the book’s focus on health science, additional Health Watch essays are provided throughout units, and more anatomy & physiology content has been incorporated into the main narrative. Other highlights include new or revised Consider This questions, Have You Ever Wondered? Questions, and MasteringBiology.
For courses not covering plant and animal anatomy & physiology, an alternate version–Biology: Life on Earth, Tenth Edition–is also available.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Front Cover | ||
| Table of Contents | i | ||
| Chapter 1: An Introduction to Life on Earth | 1 | ||
| 1: What is Life? | 2 | ||
| Organisms Acquire and use Materials and Energy | 2 | ||
| Organisms Actively Maintain Organized Complexity | 3 | ||
| Organisms Perceive and Respond to stimuli | 3 | ||
| Organisms Grow | 4 | ||
| Organisms Reproduce | 4 | ||
| Organisms, Collectively, have the Capacity to Evolve | 4 | ||
| 2: What is Evolution? | 5 | ||
| Three Natural Processes Underlie Evolution | 5 | ||
| 3: How Do Scientists Study Life? | 7 | ||
| Life Can Be studied at Different Levels | 7 | ||
| Biologists Classify Organisms Based on their Evolutionary Relationships | 9 | ||
| 4: What is Science? | 11 | ||
| Science is Based on the Principle that all Events have Natural Causes | 11 | ||
| The Scientific Method is an Important Tool of Scientific Inquiry | 11 | ||
| Biologists Test Hypotheses Using Controlled Experiments | 11 | ||
| Scientific Theories have been thoroughly Tested | 14 | ||
| Science is a Human Endeavor | 14 | ||
| Chapter Review | 16 | ||
| Chapter 2: Atoms, Molecules, and Life | 21 | ||
| 1: What are Atoms? | 22 | ||
| Atoms are the Basic Structural Units of Elements | 22 | ||
| Atoms are Composed of Still Smaller Particles | 22 | ||
| Elements are Defined by their Aomic Numbers | 23 | ||
| Isotopes are Atoms of the same Element with Different Numbers of Neutrons | 23 | ||
| Nuclei and Electrons Play Complementary Roles in Atoms | 23 | ||
| 2: How do Atoms Interact to Form Molecules? | 26 | ||
| Atoms Form Molecules to Fill Vacancies in their Outer Electron Shells | 26 | ||
| Chemical Bonds Hold Atoms together in Molecules | 26 | ||
| Ionic Bonds Form Among Ions | 26 | ||
| Covalent Bonds Form by Sharing Electrons | 26 | ||
| Covalent Bonds May Produce Nonpolar or Polar Molecules | 27 | ||
| Hydrogen Bonds are Attractive Forces between Certain Polar Molecules | 29 | ||
| 3: Why is Water so Important to Life? | 29 | ||
| Water Molecules Attract One Another | 29 | ||
| Water Interacts with many other Molecules | 30 | ||
| Water Moderates the Effects of Temperature Changes | 31 | ||
| Water Forms an Unusual Solid: Ice | 32 | ||
| Water-Based Solutions can be Acidic, Basic, or Neutral | 32 | ||
| Chapter Review | 34 | ||
| Chapter 3: Biological Molecules | 39 | ||
| 1: Why is Carbon so Important in Biological Molecules? | 41 | ||
| The Unique Bonding Properties of Carbon are Key to the Complexity of Organic Molecules | 41 | ||
| 2: How are Organic Molecules Synthesized? | 42 | ||
| Biological Polymers are Formed by Removing Water and Split Apart by Adding Water | 42 | ||
| 3: What are Carbohydrates? | 43 | ||
| There are Several Monosaccharides with Slightly Different Structures | 44 | ||
| Disaccharides Consist of Two Monosaccharides Linked by Dehydration Synthesis | 44 | ||
| Polysaccharides are Chains of Monosaccharides | 45 | ||
| 4: What are Lipids? | 47 | ||
| Oils, Fats, and Waxes are Lipids Containing Only Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen | 47 | ||
| Phospholipids have Water-Soluble“Heads” and Water-Insoluble “Tails” | 49 | ||
| Steroids Contain Four Fused Carbon Rings | 49 | ||
| 5: What are Proteins? | 50 | ||
| Proteins are Formed from Chains of Amino Acids | 50 | ||
| Amino Acids are Joined by Dehydration Synthesis | 51 | ||
| A Protein Can have as Manyas Four Levels of Structure | 51 | ||
| The Functions of Proteins are Related to their Three-Dimensional Structures | 54 | ||
| 6: What are Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids? | 54 | ||
| Nucleotides Act as Energy Carriers and Intracellular Messengers | 54 | ||
| DNA and RNA, the Molecules of Heredity, are Nucleic Acids | 55 | ||
| Chapter Review | 57 | ||
| Chapter 4: Cell Structure and Function | 61 | ||
| 1: What is the Cell Theory? | 62 | ||
| 2: What are the Basic Attributes of Cells? | 62 | ||
| All Cells Share Common Features | 62 | ||
| There are Two Basic Types of Cells: Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic | 66 | ||
| 3: What are the Major Features of Eukaryotic Cells? | 67 | ||
| Some Eukaryotic Cells are Supported by Cell Walls | 67 | ||
| The Cytoskeleton Provides Shape, Support, and Movement | 68 | ||
| Cilia and Flagella Move the Cell through Fluid or Move Fluid Past the Cell | 68 | ||
| The Nucleus, Containing DNA, is the Control Center of the Eukaryotic Cell | 70 | ||
| Eukaryotic Cytoplasm Contains Membranes that form the Endomembrane System | 72 | ||
| Vacuoles Serve Many Functions, Including Water Regulation, Storage, and Support | 74 | ||
| Mitochondria Extract Energy from Food Molecules and Chloroplasts Capture Solar Energy | 76 | ||
| Plants use Some Plastids for Storage | 77 | ||
| 4: What are the Major Features of Prokaryotic Cells? | 77 | ||
| Prokaryotic Cells Possess Specialized Surface Features | 78 | ||
| Prokaryotic Cells have Fewer Specialized Cytoplasmic Structures than do Eukaryotic Cells | 78 | ||
| Chapter Review | 80 | ||
| Chapter 5: Cell Membrane Structure and Function | 85 | ||
| 1: How is the Structureof the Cell Membrane Related to its Function? | 86 | ||
| Membranes are “Fluid Mosaics” in which Proteins Move within Layers of Lipids | 86 | ||
| The Fluid Phospholipid Bilayer Helps to Isolate the Cell’s Contents | 86 | ||
| A Variety of Proteins form a Mosaic within the Membrane | 89 | ||
| 2: How do Substances Move Across Membranes? | 90 | ||
| Molecules in Fluids Diffuse in Response to Gradients | 90 | ||
| Movement through Membranes Occurs by Passive Transport and Energy-Requiring Transport | 91 | ||
| Passive transport includes Simple Diffusion, Facilitated Diffusion, and Osmosis | 91 | ||
| Energy-Requiring Transport Includes Active Transport, Endocytosis, and Exocytosis | 94 | ||
| Exchange of Materials Across Membranes Influences Cell Size and Shape | 97 | ||
| 3: How do Specialized Junctions allow cells to connect and communicate? | 98 | ||
| Desmosomes Attach Cells Together | 98 | ||
| Tight Junctions make Cell Attachments Leakproof | 98 | ||
| Gap Junctions and Plasmodesmata Allow Direct Communication between Cells | 100 | ||
| Chapter Review | 101 | ||
| Chapter 6: Energy Flow in the Life of a Cell | 105 | ||
| 1: What is Energy? | 106 | ||
| The Laws of Thermodynamics describe the Basic Properties of Energy | 106 | ||
| Living Things use the Energy of Sunlight to Create the Low-Entropy Conditions of Life | 108 | ||
| 2: How is Energy Transformed during Chemical Reactions? | 108 | ||
| Exergonic Reactions Release Energy | 108 | ||
| Endergonic Reactions Require a Net Input of Energy | 108 | ||
| 3: How is Energy Transported within Cells? | 110 | ||
| ATP and Electron Carriers Transport\rEnergy within Cells | 110 | ||
| Coupled Reactions Link Exergonic with Endergonic Reactions | 110 | ||
| 4: How do Enzymes Promote Biochemical Reactions? | 111 | ||
| Catalysts Reduce the Energy Required to Start a Reaction | 111 | ||
| Enzymes are Biological Catalysts | 112 | ||
| 5: How are Enzymes Regulated? | 113 | ||
| Cells Regulate Metabolic Pathways by Controlling Enzyme Synthesis and Activity | 113 | ||
| Poisons, Drugs, and Environmental Conditions influence Enzyme Activity | 116 | ||
| Chapter Review | 118 | ||
| Chapter 7: Capturing Solar Energy: Photosynthesis | 121 | ||
| 1: What is Photosynthesis? | 123 | ||
| Leaves and Chloroplasts are Adaptationsfor Photosynthesis | 123 | ||
| Photosynthesis Consists of the Light Reactions and the Calvin Cycle | 123 | ||
| 2: The Light Reactions: How is Light Energy Converted to Chemical Energy? | 126 | ||
| Light is Captured by Pigments in Chloroplasts | 126 | ||
| The Light Reactions Occur in Association with the Thylakoid Membranes | 126 | ||
| 3: The Calvin Cycle: How is Chemical Energy Stored in Sugar Molecules? | 130 | ||
| The Calvin Cycle Captures Carbon Dioxide | 130 | ||
| Carbon Fixed During the Calvin Cycleis Used to Synthesize Glucose | 134 | ||
| Chapter Review | 135 | ||
| Chapter 8: Harvesting Energy: Glycolysis and Cellular Respiration | 139 | ||
| 1: How do Cells Obtain Energy? | 141 | ||
| Photosynthesis is the Ultimate Source of Cellular Energy | 141 | ||
| Glucose is a Key Energy-Storage Molecule | 142 | ||
| 2: What Happens During Glycolysis? | 142 | ||
| 3: What Happens During Cellular Respiration? | 144 | ||
| During the First Stage of Cellular Respiration, Pyruvate is Broken Down | 144 | ||
| During the Second Stage of Cellular Respiration, High-Energy Electrons Travel through the Electron Transport Chain | 144 | ||
| During the Third Stage of Cellular Respiration, Chemiosmosis Generates ATP | 146 | ||
| Cellular Respiration Can Extract Energy from a Variety of Molecules | 148 | ||
| 4: What Happens during Fermentation? | 148 | ||
| Fermentation Allows NAD+ to be Recycled When Oxygen is Absent | 148 | ||
| Some Cells Ferment Pyruvate to Form Lactate | 149 | ||
| Chapter Review | 152 | ||
| Chapter 9: The Continuity of Life: Cellular Reproduction | 155 | ||
| 1: Why Do Cells Divide? | 156 | ||
| Cell Division Transmits Hereditary Information to each Daughter Cell | 156 | ||
| Cell Division is Required for Growth and Development | 156 | ||
| Cell Division is Required for Sexual and Asexual Reproduction | 157 | ||
| 2: What Occurs during the Prokaryotic Cell Cycle? | 158 | ||
| 3: How is the DNA in Eukaryotic Chromosomes Organized? | 159 | ||
| The Eukaryotic Chromosome Consists of a Linear DNA Double Helix Bound to Proteins | 159 | ||
| Genes are Segments of the DNA of a Chromosome | 160 | ||
| Duplicated Chromosomes Separate During Cell Division | 161 | ||
| Eukaryotic Chromosomes Usually Occur in Pairs Containing Similar Genetic Information | 161 | ||
| 4: What Occurs during the Eukaryotic Cell Cycle? | 162 | ||
| The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle Consists of Interphase and Mitotic Cell Division | 162 | ||
| 5: How Does Mitotic Cell Division Produce Genetically Identical Daughter Cells? | 163 | ||
| During Prophase, the Chromosomes Condense, the Spindle Microtubules Form, the Nuclear Envelope Breaks Down, and the Chromosomes are Captured by the Spindle Microtubules | 164 | ||
| During Metaphase, the Chromosomes Line Up Along the Equator of the Cell | 166 | ||
| During Anaphase, Sister Chromatids Separate and are Pulled to Opposite Poles of the Cell | 166 | ||
| During Telophase, a Nuclear Envelope Forms Around each Group of Chromosomes | 166 | ||
| During Cytokinesis, the Cytoplasm is Divided between two Daughter Cells | 166 | ||
| 6: How is the Cell Cycle Controlled? | 167 | ||
| The Activities of Specific Proteins Drive the Cell Cycle | 167 | ||
| Checkpoints Regulate Progress through the Cell Cycle | 168 | ||
| 7: Why Do So many Organisms Reproduce Sexually? | 168 | ||
| Sexual Reproduction may Combine Different Parental Alleles in a Single Offspring | 168 | ||
| 8: How Does Meiotic Cell Division Produce Haploid Cells? | 169 | ||
| Meiosis I Separates Homologous Chromosomes into Two Haploid Daughter Nuclei | 170 | ||
| Meiosis II Separates Sister Chromatids into Four Daughter Nuclei | 173 | ||
| 9: When Do Mitotic and Meiotic Cell Division Occur in the Life Cycles of Eukaryotes? | 174 | ||
| In Diploid Life Cycles, the Majority of the Cycle is Spent as Diploid Cells | 175 | ||
| In Haploid Life Cycles, the Majority of the Cycle is Spent as Haploid Cells | 175 | ||
| In Alternation of Generations life Cycles, There are both Diploid and Haploid Multicellular Stages | 175 | ||
| 10: How Do Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction Produce Genetic Variability? | 177 | ||
| Shuffling of Homologues Creates Novel Combinations of Chromosomes | 177 | ||
| Crossing over Creates Chromosomes with Novel Combinations of Genes | 177 | ||
| Fusion of Gametes Adds Further Genetic Variability to the Offspring | 177 | ||
| Chapter Review | 178 | ||
| Chapter 10: Patterns of Inheritance | 183 | ||
| 10.1: What is the Physical Basis of Inheritance? | 184 | ||
| Genes are Sequences of Nucleotides at Specific Locations on Chromosomes | 184 | ||
| Mutations are the Source of Alleles | 184 | ||
| An Organism’s Two Alleles may be the Same or Different | 184 | ||
| 10.2: How were the Principles of Inheritance Discovered? | 185 | ||
| Doing it Right: The Secrets of Mendel’s Success | 185 | ||
| 10.3: How are Single Traits Inherited? | 186 | ||
| The Inheritance of Dominant and Recessive Alleles on Homologous Chromosomes Can Explain the Results of Mendel’s Crosses | 186 | ||
| Simple “Genetic Bookkeeping” Can Predict Genotypes and Phenotypes of Offspring | 188 | ||
| Mendel’s Hypothesis Can be used to Predict the Outcome of New Types of Single-Trait Crosses | 188 | ||
| 10.4: How are Multiple Traits Inherited? | 190 | ||
| Mendel Hypothesized that Traits are Inherited Independently | 190 | ||
| In an Unprepared World, Genius May Go Unrecognized | 191 | ||
| 10.5: Do the Mendelian Rules of Inheritance Apply to all Traits? | 192 | ||
| In Incomplete Dominance, the Phenotype of Heterozygotes is Intermediate between the Phenotypes of the Homozygotes | 192 | ||
| A single Gene May have Multiple Alleles | 192 | ||
| Many Traits are Influenced by Several Genes | 194 | ||
| Single Genes Typically have Multiple Effects on Phenotype | 194 | ||
| The Environment Influences the Expression of Genes | 195 | ||
| 10.6: How are Genes Located on the Same Chromosome Inherited? | 195 | ||
| Genes on the Same Chromosome Tend to be Inherited Together | 195 | ||
| Crossing Over Creates New Combinations of Linked Alleles | 195 | ||
| 10.7: How are Sex and Sex-Linked Traits Inherited? | 197 | ||
| In Mammals, the Sex of an Offspring is Determined by the Sex Chromosome in the Sperm | 197 | ||
| Sex-Linked Genes are Found only on the X or only on the Y Chromosome | 197 | ||
| 10.8: How are Human Genetic Disorders Inherited? | 198 | ||
| Some Human Genetic Disorders are Controlled by Single Genes | 199 | ||
| Some Human Genetic Disorders are Caused by Abnormal Numbers of Chromosomes | 203 | ||
| Chapter Review | 207 | ||
| Chapter 11: DNA: The Molecule of Heredity | 213 | ||
| 1: How did Scientists Discover that Genes are made of DNA? | 215 | ||
| Transformed Bacteria Revealed the Link between Genes and DNA | 215 | ||
| 2: What is the Structure of DNA? | 216 | ||
| DNA is Composed of Four Nucleotides | 216 | ||
| DNA is a Double Helix of two Nucleotide Strands | 217 | ||
| Hydrogen Bonds between Complementary Bases Hold two DNA Strands together in a Double Helix | 220 | ||
| 3: How Does DNA Encode Genetic Information? | 222 | ||
| Genetic Information is Encodedin the Sequence of Nucleotides | 222 | ||
| 4: How does DNA Replication Ensure Genetic Constancy During Cell Division? | 222 | ||
| DNA Replication Produces Two DNA Double Helices, Each with One Original Strand and One New Strand | 222 | ||
| 5: What are Mutations, and How do they Occur? | 223 | ||
| Accurate Replication, Proofreading, and DNA Repair Produce Almost Error-Free DNA | 227 | ||
| Toxic Chemicals, Radiation, and Occasional Errors During DNA Replication Cause Mutations | 227 | ||
| Mutations Range from Changes in Single Nucleotide Pairs to Movements of Large Pieces of Chromosomes | 227 | ||
| Chapter Review | 229 | ||
| Chapter 12: Gene Expression and Regulation | 233 | ||
| 1: How is the Information in DNA Used in a Cell | 234 | ||
| Most Genes Contain the Information Needed to Synthesize a Protein | 234 | ||
| DNA Provides Instructions for Protein Synthesis via RNA Intermediaries | 234 | ||
| Overview: Genetic Information is Transcribed into RNA and then Translated into Protein | 236 | ||
| The Genetic Code Uses three Bases to Specify an Amino Acid | 236 | ||
| 2: How is the Informationin a Gene transcribed into RNA? | 238 | ||
| Transcription Begins when RNA Polymerase Binds to the Promoter of a Gene | 239 | ||
| Elongation Generates a Growing Strand of RNA | 239 | ||
| Transcription Stops When RNA Polymerase Reaches the Termination Signal | 239 | ||
| 3: How is the Base Sequence of mRNA Translated into Protein? | 240 | ||
| In Eukaryotes, a Precursor RNA is Processed to Form mRNA that is Translated into Protein | 241 | ||
| During Translation, mRNA, tRNA, and Ribosomes Cooperate to Synthesize Proteins | 242 | ||
| 4: How do Mutations Affect Protein Structure and Function? | 244 | ||
| The Effects of Mutations Depend on how they Alter the Codons of mRNA | 245 | ||
| 5: How is Gene Expression Regulated? | 246 | ||
| In Prokaryotes, Gene Expression is Primarily Regulated at the Level of Transcription | 246 | ||
| In Eukaryotes, Gene Expression is Regulated at many Levels | 247 | ||
| Chapter Review | 253 | ||
| Chapter 13: Principles of Evolution | 257 | ||
| 1: How did Evolutionary thought Develop? | 259 | ||
| Early Biological thought did not include the Concept of Evolution | 259 | ||
| Exploration of New Lands Revealed a Staggering Diversity of Life | 259 | ||
| A Few Scientists Speculated that Life had Evolved | 259 | ||
| Fossil Discoveries Showed that Life has Changed over Time | 260 | ||
| Some Scientists Devised Nonevolutionary Explanations for Fossils | 260 | ||
| Geology Provided Evidence that Earth is Exceedingly Old | 260 | ||
| Some Pre-Darwin Biologists Proposed Mechanisms for Evolution | 261 | ||
| Darwin and Wallace Proposed a Mechanism of Evolution | 263 | ||
| 2: How does Natural Selection Work? | 265 | ||
| Darwin and Wallace’s Theory Rests on Four Postulates | 265 | ||
| Postulate 1: Individuals in a Population Vary | 265 | ||
| Postulate 2: Traits are Passed from Parent to Offspring | 265 | ||
| Postulate 3: Some Individuals Fail to Survive and Reproduce | 265 | ||
| Postulate 4: Survival and Reproduction are not Determined by Chance | 266 | ||
| Natural Selection Modifies Populations over Time | 266 | ||
| 3: How Do we know that Evolution has Occurred? | 266 | ||
| Fossils provide Evidence of Evolutionary Change over Time | 266 | ||
| Comparative Anatomy Gives Evidence of Descent with Modification | 266 | ||
| Embryological Similarity Suggests Common Ancestry | 269 | ||
| Modern Biochemical and Genetic Analyses Reveal Relatedness Among Diverse Organisms | 269 | ||
| 4: What is the Evidence that Populations Evolve by Natural Selection? | 271 | ||
| Controlled Breeding Modifies Organisms | 271 | ||
| Evolution by Natural Selection Occurs Today | 271 | ||
| Chapter Review | 275 | ||
| Chapter 14: How Populations Evolve | 279 | ||
| 1: How are Populations, Genes, and Evolution Related? | 280 | ||
| Genes and the Environment interact to Determine Traits | 280 | ||
| The Gene Pool Comprises all of the Alleles in a Population | 280 | ||
| Evolution is the Change of Allele Frequencies within a Population | 281 | ||
| The Equilibrium Populationis a Hypothetical Population in which Evolution does not Occur | 281 | ||
| 2: What Causes Evolution? | 282 | ||
| Mutations are the Original Source of Genetic Variability | 283 | ||
| Gene Flow between Populations Changes Allele Frequencies | 284 | ||
| Allele Frequencies May Change by Chance in small Populations | 284 | ||
| Mating within a Population is Almost Never Random | 289 | ||
| All Genotypes are not Equally Beneficial | 289 | ||
| 3: How does Natural Selection Work? | 291 | ||
| Natural Selection Stems from Unequal Reproduction | 291 | ||
| Chapter 15: The Origin of Species | 299 | ||
| 1: What is a species? | 300 | ||
| Each Species Evolves Independently | 300 | ||
| Appearance can be Misleading | 300 | ||
| 2: How is Reproductive Isolation between Species Maintained? | 301 | ||
| Premating Isolating Mechanisms Prevent Mating Between Species | 302 | ||
| Postmating Isolating Mechanisms Limit Hybrid Offspring | 304 | ||
| 3: How Do New Species Form? | 305 | ||
| Geographic Separation of a Population can Lead to Allopatric Speciation | 305 | ||
| Genetic Isolation without Geographic Separation can Lead to Sympatric Speciation | 307 | ||
| Under Some Conditions, Many New Species may Arise | 308 | ||
| 4: What Causes Extinction? | 309 | ||
| Localized Distribution makes Species Vulnerable | 309 | ||
| Overspecialization Increases the Risk of Extinction | 310 | ||
| Interactions with Other Species May Drive a Species to Extinction | 310 | ||
| Habitat Change and Destruction are the Leading Causes of Extinction | 310 | ||
| Chapter Review | 312 | ||
| Chapter 16: The History of Life | 315 | ||
| 1: How did Life Begin? | 317 | ||
| The First Living things Arose from Nonliving Ones | 317 | ||
| RNA may have been the First Self-Reproducing Molecule | 319 | ||
| Membrane-Like Vesicles may have Enclosed Ribozymes | 320 | ||
| But did all this Really Happen? | 320 | ||
| 2: What were the Earliest Organisms Like? | 321 | ||
| The First Organisms were Anaerobic Prokaryotes | 321 | ||
| Some Organisms Evolved the Ability to Capture the Sun’s Energy | 323 | ||
| Aerobic Metabolism Arose in Response to Dangers Posed by Oxygen | 324 | ||
| Some Organisms Acquired Membrane-Enclosed Organelles | 324 | ||
| 3: What were the Earliest Multicellular Organisms Like? | 325 | ||
| Some Algae Became Multicellular | 325 | ||
| Animal Diversity Arose in the Precambrian Era | 326 | ||
| 4: How did Life Invade the Land? | 326 | ||
| Some Plants Became Adapted to Life on Dry Land | 327 | ||
| Some Animals became Adapted to Life on Dry Land | 328 | ||
| 5: What Role has Extinction Played in the History of Life? | 330 | ||
| Evolutionary History has been Marked by Periodic Mass Extinctions | 330 | ||
| 6: How did Humans Evolve? | 332 | ||
| Humans Inherited Some Early Primate Adaptations for Life in Trees | 332 | ||
| The Oldest Hominin Fossils are from Africa | 333 | ||
| The Genus Homo Diverged from the Australopithecines 2.5 Million Years Ago | 335 | ||
| The Evolution of Homo was Accompanied by Advances in Tool Technology | 335 | ||
| Modern Humans Emerged Less than 200,000 Years Ago | 336 | ||
| The Evolutionary Origin of Large Brains may be Related to Meat Consumption and Cooking | 338 | ||
| Sophisticated Culture Arose Relatively Recently | 338 | ||
| Chapter Review | 340 | ||
| Chapter 17: Systematics: Seeking Order Amid Diversity | 345 | ||
| 1: How are Organisms Named and Classified? | 346 | ||
| Each Species Has a Unique, Two-Part Name | 346 | ||
| Modern Classification Emphasizes Patterns of Evolutionary Descent | 347 | ||
| Systematists Identify Features that Reveal Evolutionary Relationships | 347 | ||
| Modern Systematics Relies on Molecular Similarities to Reconstruct Phylogeny | 347 | ||
| Systematists Name Groups of Related Species | 348 | ||
| Use of Taxonomic Ranks is Declining | 349 | ||
| 2: What are the Domains of Life? | 352 | ||
| 3: Why do Classifications Change? | 354 | ||
| Species Designations Change when New Information is Discovered | 354 | ||
| The Biological Species Definition can be Difficult or Impossible to Apply | 354 | ||
| 4: How many Species Exist? | 354 | ||
| Chapter Review | 356 | ||
| Chapter 18: The Diversity of Prokaryotes and Viruses | 359 | ||
| 1: Which Organisms are Members of the Domains Archaea and Bacteria? | 361 | ||
| Bacteria and Archaea are Fundamentally Different | 361 | ||
| Classification of Prokaryotes within each Domain is Difficult | 361 | ||
| 2: How do Prokaryotes Survive and Reproduce? | 362 | ||
| Some Prokaryotes are Motile | 362 | ||
| Many Bacteria form Protective Films on Surfaces | 362 | ||
| Protective Endospores Allow Some Bacteria to withstand Adverse Conditions | 363 | ||
| Prokaryotes are Specialized for Specific Habitats | 364 | ||
| Prokaryotes Reproduce by Fission | 366 | ||
| Prokaryotes may Exchange Genetic Material without Reproducing | 366 | ||
| 3: How do Prokaryotes Affect Humans and other Organisms | 367 | ||
| Prokaryotes Play Important Roles in Animal Nutrition | 367 | ||
| Prokaryotes Capture the Nitrogen Needed by Plants | 367 | ||
| Prokaryotes are Nature’s Recyclers | 368 | ||
| Prokaryotes can Clean up Pollution | 368 | ||
| Some Bacteria Pose a Threat to Human Health | 368 | ||
| 4: What are Viruses, Viroids, and Prions? | 369 | ||
| A Virus Consists of a Molecule of DNA Or RNA Surrounded by a Protein Coat | 369 | ||
| Viruses Require a Host to Reproduce | 370 | ||
| Some Infectious Agentsare even Simpler than Viruses | 371 | ||
| No One is Certain How these Infectious Particles Originated | 373 | ||
| Chapter Review | 374 | ||
| Chapter 19: The Diversity of Protists | 377 | ||
| 1: What are Protists? | 379 | ||
| Protists Use Diverse Modes of Nutrition | 379 | ||
| Protists Use Diverse Modes of Reproduction | 379 | ||
| Protists affect Humans and Other Organisms | 379 | ||
| 2: What are the Major Groups of Protists? | 380 | ||
| Excavates Lack Mitochondria | 380 | ||
| Euglenozoans have Distinctive Mitochondria | 382 | ||
| Stramenopiles have Distinctive Flagella | 383 | ||
| Alveolates Include Parasites, Predators, and Phytoplankton | 384 | ||
| Rhizarians have thin Pseudopods | 385 | ||
| Amoebozoans have Pseudopods and No Shells | 388 | ||
| Red Algae Contain Red Photosynthetic Pigments | 389 | ||
| Green Algae are Closely Related to Land Plants | 389 | ||
| Chapter Review | 392 | ||
| Chapter 20: The Diversity of Plants | 395 | ||
| 1: What are the Key Features of Plants? | 396 | ||
| Plants are Photosynthetic | 396 | ||
| Plants have Multicellular, Dependent Embryos | 396 | ||
| Plants have Alternating Multicellular Haploid and Diploid Generations | 396 | ||
| 2: How have Plants Evolved? | 396 | ||
| The Ancestors of Plants Lived in Water | 398 | ||
| Early Plants Invaded Land | 398 | ||
| Plant Bodies Evolved to Resist Gravity and Drying | 398 | ||
| Plants evolved Protection for their Embryos and Sex Cells that Disperse without Water | 398 | ||
| More Recently Evolved Plants have Smaller Gametophytes | 398 | ||
| 3: What are the Major Groups of Plants? | 399 | ||
| Nonvascular Plants Lack Conducting Structures | 399 | ||
| Vascular Plants have Conducting Cells that also Provide Support | 402 | ||
| The Seedless Vascular Plants Include the Club Mosses, Horsetails, and Ferns | 403 | ||
| The Seed Plants are Aided by Two Important Adaptations: Pollen and Seeds | 405 | ||
| Gymnosperms are Nonflowering Seed Plants | 405 | ||
| Angiosperms are Flowering Seed Plants | 408 | ||
| 4: How do Plants affect other Organisms? | 410 | ||
| Plants Play a Crucial Ecological Role | 410 | ||
| Plants Provide Humans with Necessities and Luxuries | 411 | ||
| Chapter Review | 412 | ||
| Chapter 21: The Diversity of Fungi | 415 | ||
| 1: What are the Key Features of Fungi? | 417 | ||
| Fungal Bodies Consist of Slender Threads | 417 | ||
| Fungi Obtain their Nutrients from other Organisms | 418 | ||
| Fungi can Reproduce both Asexually and Sexually | 418 | ||
| 2: What are the Major Groups of Fungi? | 419 | ||
| Chytrids, Blastoclades, and Rumen Fungi Produce Swimming Spores | 420 | ||
| Chytrids are Mostly Aquatic | 420 | ||
| Rumen Fungi Live in Animal Digestive Tracts | 420 | ||
| Blastoclades have a Nuclear Cap | 420 | ||
| Glomeromycetes Associate with Plant Roots | 421 | ||
| Basidiomycetes Produce Club-Shaped Reproductive Structures | 422 | ||
| Ascomycetes form Spores in a Saclike Case | 423 | ||
| Bread Molds are Among the Fungi that can Reproduce by Forming Diploid Spores | 425 | ||
| 3: How do Fungi Interact with other Species? | 426 | ||
| Lichens are Formed by Fungi that Live with Photosynthetic Algae or Bacteria | 426 | ||
| Mycorrhizae are Fungi Associated with Plant Roots | 427 | ||
| Endophytes are Fungi that Live Inside Plant Stems and Leaves | 427 | ||
| Some Fungi are Important Decomposers | 427 | ||
| 4: How do Fungi affect Humans? | 428 | ||
| Fungi Attack Plants that are Important to People | 428 | ||
| Fungi Cause human Diseases | 428 | ||
| Fungi can Produce Toxins | 429 | ||
| Many Antibiotics are Derived from Fungi | 429 | ||
| Fungi Make Important Contributions to Gastronomy | 430 | ||
| Wine and Beer are made Using Yeasts | 431 | ||
| Yeasts make Bread Rise | 431 | ||
| Chapter Review | 432 | ||
| Chapter 22: Animal Diversity I: Invertebrates | 435 | ||
| 1: What are the Key Features of Animals? | 437 | ||
| 2: Which Anatomical Features mark Branch Points on the Animal Evolutionary Tree? | 437 | ||
| Lack of Tissues Separates Sponges from all Other Animals | 437 | ||
| Animals with Tissues Exhibit either Radial or Bilateral Symmetry | 437 | ||
| Most Bilateral Animals have Body Cavities | 439 | ||
| Bilateral Organisms Developin One of Two Ways | 440 | ||
| Protostomes include two Distinct Evolutionary Lines | 440 | ||
| 3: What are the Major Animal Phyla? | 441 | ||
| Sponges are Simple, Sessile Animals | 441 | ||
| Cnidarians are Well-Armed Predators | 443 | ||
| Comb Jellies Use Cilia to Move | 446 | ||
| Flatworms may be Parasitic or Free Living | 446 | ||
| Annelids are Segmented Worms | 448 | ||
| Most Mollusks have Shells | 449 | ||
| Arthropods are the Most Diverse and Abundant Animals | 453 | ||
| Roundworms are Abundant and Mostly Tiny | 458 | ||
| Echinoderms have a Calcium Carbonate Skeleton | 458 | ||
| The Chordates Include the Vertebrates | 460 | ||
| Chapter Review | 461 | ||
| Chapter 23: Animal Diversity II: Vertebrates | 465 | ||
| 1: What are the Key Features of Chordates? | 466 | ||
| All Chordates Share Four Distinctive Structures | 466 | ||
| 2: Which Animals are Chordates? | 466 | ||
| Tunicates Include Sea Squirts and Salps | 466 | ||
| Lancelets are Marine Filter-Feeders | 468 | ||
| Craniates have a Skull | 468 | ||
| 3: What are the Major Groups of Vertebrates? | 470 | ||
| Some Lampreys Parasitize Fish | 470 | ||
| Cartilaginous Fishes are Marine Predators | 470 | ||
| Ray-Finned Fishes are the Most Diverse Vertebrates | 471 | ||
| Coelacanths and Lungfishes have Lobed Fins | 471 | ||
| Amphibians Live a Double Life | 472 | ||
| Reptiles are Adapted for Life on Land | 475 | ||
| Mammals Provide Milk to their Offspring | 477 | ||
| Chapter Review | 480 | ||
| Chapter 24: Animal Behavior | 483 | ||
| 1: How do Innate and Learned Behaviors Differ? | 484 | ||
| Innate Behaviors can be Performed without Prior Experience | 484 | ||
| Learned Behaviors Require Experience | 484 | ||
| There is No Sharp Distinction between Innate and Learned Behaviors | 487 | ||
| 2: How do Animals Communicate? | 488 | ||
| Visual Communication is Most effective Over Short Distances | 489 | ||
| Communication by Sound is Effective Over Longer Distances | 490 | ||
| Chemical Messages Persist Longer but are Hard to Vary | 490 | ||
| Communication by Touch Helps Establish Social Bonds | 492 | ||
| 3: How do Animals Compete for Resources? | 492 | ||
| Aggressive Behavior Helps Secure Resources | 492 | ||
| Dominance Hierarchies Help manage Aggressive Interactions | 493 | ||
| Animals may Defend Territories that Contain Resources | 493 | ||
| 4: How Do Animals Find Mates? | 495 | ||
| Signals Encode Sex, Species, and Individual Quality | 495 | ||
| 5: Why Do Animals Play? | 498 | ||
| Animals Play Alone or with Other Animals | 498 | ||
| Play Aids Behavioral Development | 498 | ||
| 6: What Kinds of Societies Do Animals Form? | 498 | ||
| Group Living hhas Advantages and Disadvantages | 499 | ||
| Sociality Varies among Species | 499 | ||
| Forming Groups with Relatives Fosters the Evolution of Altruism | 499 | ||
| Honeybees Live Together in Rigidly Structured Societies | 500 | ||
| Naked Mole Rats form a Complex Vertebrate Society | 500 | ||
| 7: Can Biology Explain Human Behavior? | 501 | ||
| The Behavior of Newborn Infants has a Large Innate Component | 502 | ||
| Young Humans Acquire Language Easily | 502 | ||
| Behaviors Shared by Diverse Cultures may be Innate | 503 | ||
| Humans may Respond to Pheromones | 503 | ||
| Studies of Twins Reveal Genetic Components of Behavior | 503 | ||
| Biological Investigation of Human Behavior is Controversial | 504 | ||
| Chapter Review | 505 | ||
| Chapter 25: Population Growth and Regulation | 509 | ||
| 1: How does Population size Change? | 510 | ||
| Changes in Population Size Result from Natural Increases and Net Migration | 510 | ||
| Biotic Potential Determines the Maximum Rate at which a Population can Grow | 512 | ||
| 2: How is Population Growth Regulated? | 512 | ||
| Exponential Growth Occurs Only Under Unusual Conditions | 512 | ||
| Environmental Resistance Limits Population Growth | 514 | ||
| 3: How are Populations Distributed in Space and Age? | 520 | ||
| Populations Exhibit Different Spatial Distributions | 520 | ||
| Populations Exhibit Different Age Distributions | 521 | ||
| 4: How is the Human Population Changing? | 522 | ||
| The Human Population Continues to Grow Rapidly | 522 | ||
| A Series of Advances has Increased Earth’s Capacity to Support People | 522 | ||
| The Demographic Transition Explains Trends in Population Size | 524 | ||
| World Population Growth is Unevenly Distributed | 524 | ||
| The Age Structure of a Population Predictsits Future Growth | 525 | ||
| Fertility in Some Nations is below Replacement Level | 527 | ||
| The U.S. Population is Growing Rapidly | 528 | ||
| Chapter Review | 529 | ||
| Chapter 26: Community Interactions | 533 | ||
| 1: Why are Community Interactions Important? | 534 | ||
| 2: How Does the Ecological Niche Influence Competition? | 534 | ||
| Competition Occurs whenever Two Organisms attempt to Use the Same, Limited Resources | 535 | ||
| Adaptations Reduce the Overlap of Ecological Niches Among Coexisting Species | 535 | ||
| Competition among Species may Reduce the Population Size and Distribution of each | 535 | ||
| Competition within a Species is a Major Factor Controlling Population Size | 536 | ||
| 3: How Do Predator–Prey Interactions Shape Evolutionary Adaptations? | 536 | ||
| Some Predators and Prey have Evolved Counteracting Adaptations | 537 | ||
| Predators and Prey may Engage in Chemical Warfare | 539 | ||
| Looks can be Deceiving for both Predators and Prey | 539 | ||
| 4: What are Parasitism and Mutualism? | 543 | ||
| Parasites and their Hosts Act as Agents of Natural Selection on One Another | 543 | ||
| Both Species Benefit from Mutualistic Interactions | 544 | ||
| 5: How Do Keystone Species Influence Community Structure? | 545 | ||
| 6: How Do Community Interactions Cause Change Over Time? | 546 | ||
| There are Two major Forms of Succession: Primary and Secondary | 546 | ||
| Succession Culminates in a Climax Community | 549 | ||
| Some Ecosystems are Maintained in Subclimax Stages | 550 | ||
| Chapter Review | 551 | ||
| Chapter 27: Energy Flow and Nutrient Cyclingin Ecosystems | 555 | ||
| 1: How Do Nutrients and Energy move through Ecosystems? | 557 | ||
| 2: How does Energy Flow through Ecosystems? | 557 | ||
| Energy Enters Ecosystems through Photosynthesis | 557 | ||
| Energy is Passed from One Trophiclevel to the Next | 557 | ||
| Net Primary Production is a Measureof the energy stored in Producers | 559 | ||
| Food Chains and Food Webs Describe Feeding Relationships within Communities | 559 | ||
| Energy Transfer Between Trophic Levels is Inefficient | 560 | ||
| 3: How Do Nutrients Cycle within and Among Ecosystems? | 563 | ||
| The Hydrologic Cycle has its Major Reservoir in the Oceans | 563 | ||
| The Carbon Cycle has Major Reservoirs in the Atmosphere and Oceans | 564 | ||
| The Nitrogen cycle has its Major Reservoir in the Atmosphere | 565 | ||
| The Phosphorus Cycle has its Major Reservoir in Rock | 566 | ||
| 4: What Happens When Humans Disrupt Nutrient Cycles? | 567 | ||
| Overloading the Nitrogen And Phosphorus Cycles Damages Aquatic Ecosystems | 567 | ||
| Overloading the Sulfur and Nitrogen Cycles Causes Acid Deposition | 567 | ||
| Interfering with the Carbon Cycleis Changing Earth’s Climate | 568 | ||
| Chapter Review | 573 | ||
| Chapter 28: Earth’s Diverse Ecosystems | 577 | ||
| 1: What Determines the Distribution of Life on Earth? | 579 | ||
| 2: What Factors Influence Earth’s Climate? | 580 | ||
| Earth’s Curvature and Tilt on its Axis Determine the Angle at Which Sunlight Strikes the Surface | 580 | ||
| Air Currents Produce Large-Scale Climatic Zones that Differ in Temperature and Precipitation | 582 | ||
| Climate Variability is affected by Proximity to Oceans | 583 | ||
| Mountains Complicate Climate Patterns | 584 | ||
| 3: What are the Principal Terrestrial Biomes? | 585 | ||
| Tropical Rain Forests | 585 | ||
| Tropical Scrub Forests and Savannas | 587 | ||
| Deserts | 588 | ||
| Chaparral | 589 | ||
| Grasslands | 590 | ||
| Temperate Deciduous Forests | 591 | ||
| Temperate Rain Forests | 592 | ||
| Northern Coniferous Forests | 592 | ||
| Tundra | 594 | ||
| 4: What are the Principal Aquatic Biomes? | 595 | ||
| Freshwater Lakes | 595 | ||
| Streams and Rivers | 596 | ||
| Freshwater Wetlands | 597 | ||
| Marine Biomes | 598 | ||
| Chapter Review | 603 | ||
| Chapter 29: Conserving Earth’s Biodiversity | 609 | ||
| 1: What is Conservation Biology? | 611 | ||
| 2: Why is Biodiversity Important? | 611 | ||
| Ecosystem Services are practical Uses for Biodiversity | 611 | ||
| Ecological Economics attempts to Measure the Monetary Value of Ecosystem Services | 613 | ||
| Biodiversity Supports Ecosystem Function | 614 | ||
| 3: Is Earth’s Biodiversity Diminishing? | 616 | ||
| Extinction is a Natural Process, but Rates have Risen Dramatically in Recent Years | 616 | ||
| 4: What are the Major Threats to Biodiversity? | 617 | ||
| Humanity’s Ecological Footprint Exceeds Earth’s Resources | 617 | ||
| Human Activities Directly Threaten Biodiversity | 618 | ||
| 5: How can Conservation Biology Help to Preserve Biodiversity? | 622 | ||
| Habitat Preservation is Essentialto Preserving Biodiversity | 623 | ||
| 6: Why is sustainability Essential for a Healthy Future? | 624 | ||
| Sustainable Development Promotes Long-Term Ecological and Human Well-Being | 624 | ||
| The Future of Earth is in your Hands | 626 | ||
| Chapter Review | 629 | ||
| Chapter 30: Homeostasis and the Organization of the Animal Body | 633 | ||
| 1: Homeostasis: How do Animals Regulate their Internal Environment? | 635 | ||
| The Internal Environment is Maintained in a State of Dynamic Constancy | 635 | ||
| Animals Vary in their Homeostatic Abilities | 635 | ||
| Feedback Systems Regulate Internal Conditions | 636 | ||
| 2: How is the Animal Body Organized? | 638 | ||
| Animal Tissues are Composed of Similar Cells that Perform a Specific Function | 638 | ||
| Organs Include Two or more Interacting Tissue Types | 644 | ||
| Organ Systems Consist of Two or more Interacting Organs | 645 | ||
| Chapter Review | 647 | ||
| Chapter 31: Circulation | 651 | ||
| 1: What are the Major Features and Functions of Circulatory Systems? | 652 | ||
| Two Types of Circulatory Systems are Found in Animals | 652 | ||
| The Vertebrate Circulatory System has Diverse Functions | 653 | ||
| 2: How does the Vertebrate Heart Work? | 653 | ||
| The Two-Chambered Heart of Fishes was the First Vertebrate Heart to Evolve | 653 | ||
| Increasingly Complex and Efficient Hearts Evolved in Terrestrial Vertebrates | 654 | ||
| Four-Chambered Hearts Consist of Two Separate Pumps | 654 | ||
| Valves Maintain the Direction of Blood Flow | 655 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle is Present only in the Heart | 655 | ||
| The Coordinated Contractions of Atria and Ventricles Produce the Cardiac Cycle | 656 | ||
| Electrical Impulses Coordinate the Sequence of Heart Chamber Contractions | 657 | ||
| The Nervous System and Hormones Influence Heart Rate | 658 | ||
| 3: What is Blood? | 658 | ||
| Plasma is Primarily Water in which Proteins, Salts, Nutrients, and Wastes are Dissolved | 659 | ||
| The Cell-Based Components of Blood are Formed in Bone Marrow | 659 | ||
| Red Blood Cells Carry Oxygen from the Lungs to the Tissues | 659 | ||
| White Blood Cells Defend the Body Against Disease | 660 | ||
| Platelets are Cell Fragments that Aid in Blood Clotting | 660 | ||
| 4: What are the Types and Functions of Blood Vessels? | 662 | ||
| Arteries and Arterioles Carry Blood Away from the Heart | 662 | ||
| Capillaries Allow Exchange of Nutrients and Wastes | 663 | ||
| Veins and Venules Carry Blood Back to the Heart | 665 | ||
| Arterioles Control the Distribution of Blood Flow | 666 | ||
| 5: How does the Lymphatic System Work with the Circulatory System? | 666 | ||
| Lymphatic Vessels Resemble the Capillaries and Veins of the Circulatory System | 667 | ||
| The Lymphatic System Returns Interstitial Fluid to the Blood | 668 | ||
| The Lymphatic System Transports Fats from the Small Intestine to the Blood | 668 | ||
| Lymphatic Organs Help Defend the Body | 668 | ||
| Chapter Review | 669 | ||
| Chapter 32: Respiration | 675 | ||
| 1: Why Exchange Gases and What are the Requirements for Gas Exchange? | 677 | ||
| The Exchange of Gases Supports Cellular Respiration | 677 | ||
| Gas Exchange through Cells and Tissues Relies on Diffusion | 677 | ||
| 2: How do Respiratory Adaptations Minimize Diffusion Distances? | 678 | ||
| Relatively Inactive Animals may Lack Specialized Respiratory Organs | 678 | ||
| Respiratory Systems and Circulatory Systems Often Work together to Facilitate Gas Exchange | 679 | ||
| Gills Facilitate Gas Exchange in Aquatic Environments | 679 | ||
| Terrestrial Animals have Internal Respiratory Structures | 680 | ||
| 3: How is Air Conducted through the Human Respiratory System? | 683 | ||
| The Conducting Portion of the Respiratory System Carries Air to the Lungs | 683 | ||
| Air is Inhaled Actively and Exhaled Passively | 684 | ||
| Breathing Rate is Controlled by the Respiratory Center of the Brain | 684 | ||
| 4: How does Gas Exchange Occur in the Human Respiratory System? | 686 | ||
| Gas Exchange Occurs in the Alveoli | 686 | ||
| Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide are Transported in Blood Using Different Mechanisms | 687 | ||
| Chapter Review | 689 | ||
| Chapter 33: Nutrition and Digestion | 693 | ||
| 1: What Nutrients Do Animals Need? | 695 | ||
| Most Energy is Provided by Carbohydrates and Lipids | 695 | ||
| Essential Nutrients Provide the Raw Materials for Health | 697 | ||
| The Human Body is about Sixty Percent Water | 699 | ||
| 2: How does Digestion Occur? | 700 | ||
| In Sponges, Digestion Occurs within Single Cells | 700 | ||
| The Simplest Digestive System is a Chamber with One Opening | 701 | ||
| Most Animals have Tubular Digestive Systems with Specialized Compartments | 701 | ||
| Vertebrate Digestive Systems are Specialized According to their Diets | 702 | ||
| 3: How Do Humans Digest Food? | 704 | ||
| Mechanical and Chemical Digestion Begin in the Mouth | 705 | ||
| The Esophagus Conducts Food to the Stomach, where Mechanical and Chemical Digestion Continue | 706 | ||
| Most Chemical Digestion and Nutrient Absorption Occur in the Small Intestine | 708 | ||
| Water is Absorbed and Feces are Formed in the Large Intestine | 711 | ||
| Digestion is Controlled by the Nervous System and Hormones | 711 | ||
| Chapter Review | 713 | ||
| Chapter 34: The Urinary System | 717 | ||
| 1: What are the Major Functions of Urinary Systems? | 718 | ||
| Excretion Eliminates Wastes from the Body | 718 | ||
| Homeostasis Maintains Relatively Constant Internal Conditions | 718 | ||
| 2: What are some Examples of Invertebrate Urinary Systems? | 718 | ||
| Protonephridia Filter Interstitial Fluid in Flatworms | 719 | ||
| Malpighian Tubules Filter the Hemolymph of Insects | 719 | ||
| Nephridia Filter Interstitial Fluid in Annelid Worms and Mollusks | 719 | ||
| 3: What are the Structures of the Mammalian Urinary System? | 719 | ||
| Different Structures of the Human Urinary System Produce, Store, and Excrete Urine | 720 | ||
| Large Quantities of Blood Flow through the Kidneys | 721 | ||
| Nephrons in the Kidneys Filter Blood and Produce Urine | 721 | ||
| 4: How is Urine Formed? | 723 | ||
| Filtration Removes Small Molecules and Ions from the Blood | 723 | ||
| Tubular Reabsorption Returns Important Substances to the Blood | 723 | ||
| Tubular Secretion Actively Transports Substances into the Tubule for Excretion | 724 | ||
| 5: How Do Vertebrate Urinary Systems Help Maintain Homeostasis? | 724 | ||
| The Kidneys Regulate the Water and Ion Content of the Blood | 724 | ||
| The Kidneys Help Maintain Blood pH | 728 | ||
| The Kidneys Help Regulate Blood Pressure and Oxygen Levels | 728 | ||
| Fish Face Special Challenges in their Aquatic Environments | 728 | ||
| Chapter Review | 730 | ||
| Chapter 35: Defenses Against Disease | 735 | ||
| 1: How does the Body Defend itself against Disease? | 736 | ||
| Vertebrate Animals have Three Major Lines of Defense: Nonspecific External Barriers, Nonspecific Internal Defenses, and Specific Internal Defenses | 737 | ||
| Invertebrate Animals Possess the Nonspecific Lines of Defense | 737 | ||
| 2: How Do Nonspecific Defenses Function? | 738 | ||
| The Skin and Mucous Membranes Form Nonspecific External Barriers to Invasion | 738 | ||
| The Innate Immune Response Nonspecifically Combats Invading Microbes | 739 | ||
| 3: What are the Key Components of the Adaptive Immune System? | 741 | ||
| The Adaptive Immune System Consistsof Cells and Molecules Dispersed throughout the Body | 741 | ||
| 4: How does the Adaptive Immune System Recognize Invaders? | 742 | ||
| The Adaptive Immune System Recognizes Invaders’ Complex Molecules | 742 | ||
| The Adaptive Immune System Can Recognize Millions of Different Antigens | 743 | ||
| The Adaptive Immune System Distinguishes Self from Non-Self | 745 | ||
| 5: How does the Adaptive Immune System Attack Invaders? | 745 | ||
| Humoral Immunity is Produced by Antibodies Dissolved in the Blood | 745 | ||
| Cell-Mediated Immunity is Produced by Cytotoxic T Cells | 747 | ||
| Helper T Cells Enhance both Humoral and Cell-Mediated Immune Responses | 747 | ||
| 6: How does the Adaptive Immune System Remember its Past Victories? | 747 | ||
| 7: How does Medical Care Assist the Immune Response? | 749 | ||
| Antibiotics Slow Down Microbial Reproduction | 749 | ||
| Vaccinations Produce Immunity Against Disease | 749 | ||
| 8: What Happens When the Immune System Malfunctions? | 749 | ||
| Allergies are Misdirected Immune Responses | 749 | ||
| An Autoimmune Disease is an Immune Response Against the Body’s Own Molecules | 750 | ||
| Immune Deficiency Diseases Occur When the Body cannot Mount an Effective Immune Response | 750 | ||
| 9: How does the Immune System Combat Cancer? | 753 | ||
| The Immune System Recognizes Most Cancerous Cells as Foreign | 753 | ||
| Vaccination Can Prevent Some Cancers | 753 | ||
| Vaccines may Someday Help to Cure Cancer | 753 | ||
| Most Medical Treatments for Cancer Depend on Selectively Killing Cancerous Cells | 754 | ||
| Chapter Review | 754 | ||
| Chapter 36: Chemical Control of the Animal Body: The Endocrine System | 759 | ||
| 1: How Do Animal Cells Communicate? | 760 | ||
| Paracrine Communication Acts locally | 761 | ||
| Endocrine Communication Uses the Circulatory System to Carry Hormones to Target Cells throughout the Body | 761 | ||
| 2: How Do Endocrine Hormones Produce their Effects? | 762 | ||
| Peptide Hormones and Amino Acid-Derived Hormones Usually Bind to Receptors on the Surfaces of Target Cells | 762 | ||
| Steroid Hormones Usually Bind to Receptors Inside Target Cells | 763 | ||
| Hormone Release is Regulated by Feedback Mechanisms | 765 | ||
| 3: What are the Structures and Functions of the Mammalian Endocrine System? | 765 | ||
| Hormones of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland Regulate many Functions throughout the Body | 765 | ||
| The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands Influence Metabolism and Calcium Levels | 769 | ||
| The Pancreas has both Digestive and Endocrine Functions | 771 | ||
| The Sex Organs Produce both Gametes and Sex Hormones | 773 | ||
| The Adrenal Glands Secrete Hormones that Regulate Metabolism and Responsesto Stress | 773 | ||
| Hormones are also Produced by the Pineal Gland, Thymus, Kidneys, Digestive Tract, Heart, and Fat Cells | 775 | ||
| Chapter Review | 776 | ||
| Chapter 37: The Nervous System | 781 | ||
| 1: What are the Structures and Functions of Nerve Cells? | 782 | ||
| The Functions of a Neuron are localized in Separate Parts of the Cell | 782 | ||
| 2: How Do Neurons Produce and Transmit Information? | 784 | ||
| Information within a Single Neuron is Carried by Electrical Signals | 784 | ||
| Neurons Use Chemicals to Communicate with One Another at Synapses | 784 | ||
| 3: How does the Nervous System Process Information and Control Behavior? | 789 | ||
| The Nature of a Stimulus is Encoded by Specialization of Sensory Neurons and their Connections to Specific Parts of the Brain | 789 | ||
| The Intensity of a Stimulus is Encoded by the Frequency of action Potentials | 789 | ||
| The Nervous System Processes Information from many Sources | 789 | ||
| The Nervous System Produces Outputs to Muscles and Glands | 789 | ||
| Behaviors are Controlled by Networks of Neurons in the Nervous System | 790 | ||
| 4: How are Nervous Systems Organized? | 790 | ||
| 5: What are the Structures and Functions of the Human Nervous System? | 790 | ||
| The Peripheral Nervous System Links the Central Nervous System with the Rest of the Body | 791 | ||
| The Central Nervous System Consists of the Spinal Cord and Brain | 792 | ||
| The Spinal Cord Controls many Reflexes and Conducts Information to and from the Brain | 792 | ||
| The Brain Consists of many Parts that Perform Specific Functions | 795 | ||
| The Left and Right Sides of the Brain are Specialized for different Functions | 800 | ||
| Learning and Memory Involve Biochemical and Structural Changes in Specific Parts of the Brain | 801 | ||
| Chapter Review | 803 | ||
| Chapter 38: The Senses | 809 | ||
| 1: How Do Animals Sense their Environment? | 811 | ||
| The Senses Inform the Brain about the Nature and Intensity of Environmental Stimuli | 812 | ||
| 2: How are Mechanical Stimuli Detected? | 813 | ||
| 3: How is Sound Detected? | 814 | ||
| The Ear Converts Sound Waves into Electrical Signals | 814 | ||
| 4: How are Gravity and Movement Detected? | 816 | ||
| 5: How is Light Perceived? | 816 | ||
| The Compound Eyes of Arthropods Produce a Mosaic Image | 816 | ||
| The Mammalian Eye Collects and Focuses Light and Converts Light into Electrical Signals | 818 | ||
| 6: How are Chemicals Sensed? | 821 | ||
| Olfactory Receptors Detect Airborne Chemicals | 821 | ||
| Taste Receptors Detect Chemicals Dissolved in Liquids | 821 | ||
| 7: How is Pain Perceived? | 822 | ||
| Chapter Review | 824 | ||
| Chapter 39: Action and Support: The Muscles and Skeleton | 829 | ||
| 1: How Do Muscles Contract? | 831 | ||
| Vertebrate Skeletal Muscles have Highly Organized, Repeating Structures | 831 | ||
| Muscle Fibers Contract through Interactions between Thin and Thick Filaments | 833 | ||
| The Nervous System Controls the Contraction of Skeletal Muscles | 834 | ||
| Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Skeletal Muscle Fibers are Specialized for different types of Activity | 836 | ||
| 2: How Do Cardiac and Smooth Muscles Differ From Skeletal Muscle? | 836 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle Powers the Heart | 836 | ||
| Smooth Muscle Produces Slow, Involuntary Contractions | 837 | ||
| 3: How Do Muscles and Skeletons Work together to Provide Movement? | 838 | ||
| The actions of Antagonistic Muscles on Skeletons move Animal Bodies | 838 | ||
| The Vertebrate Endoskeleton Serves Multiple Functions | 839 | ||
| The Vertebrate Skeleton is Composed of Cartilage, Ligaments, and Bone | 840 | ||
| Antagonistic Muscles move Joints in the Vertebrate Skeleton | 843 | ||
| Chapter Review | 845 | ||
| Chapter 40: Animal Reproduction | 849 | ||
| 1: How Do Animals Reproduce? | 851 | ||
| In Asexual Reproduction, an Organism Reproduces without Mating | 851 | ||
| In Sexual Reproduction, an Organism Reproduces via the Union of Sperm and Egg | 852 | ||
| 2: What are the Structures and Functions of Human Reproductive Systems? | 854 | ||
| The Male Reproductive System includes the Testes and Accessory Structures | 854 | ||
| The Female Reproductive System Includes the Ovaries and Accessory Structures | 857 | ||
| During Copulation, Sperm are Deposited in the Vagina | 860 | ||
| During Fertilization, the Sperm and Egg Nuclei Unite | 861 | ||
| 3: How Can People Prevent Pregnancy? | 863 | ||
| Sterilization Provides Permanent Contraception | 863 | ||
| Temporary Birth Control Methods are Readily Reversible | 864 | ||
| Chapter Review | 869 | ||
| Chapter 41: Animal Development | 873 | ||
| 1: What are the Principles of Animal Development? | 874 | ||
| 2: How Do Indirect and Direct Development Differ? | 874 | ||
| During Indirect Development, Animals Undergo a Radical Change in Body Form | 874 | ||
| Newborn Animals that Undergo Direct Development Resemble Small Adults | 874 | ||
| 3: How does Animal Development Proceed? | 876 | ||
| Cleavage of the Zygote Begins Development | 876 | ||
| Gastrulation Forms Three Tissue Layers | 876 | ||
| The Major Body Parts Develop During Organogenesis | 876 | ||
| Development in Reptiles and Mammals Depends on Extraembryonic Membranes | 876 | ||
| 4: How is Development Controlled? | 878 | ||
| Molecules Positioned in the Egg and Produced by Near by Cells Control Gene Expression During Embryonic Development | 878 | ||
| 5: How Do Humans Develop? | 882 | ||
| Differentiation and Embryonic Growth are Rapid During the First Two Months | 882 | ||
| Growth and Development Continue During the Last Seven Months | 885 | ||
| The Placenta Exchanges Materials between Mother and Embryo | 887 | ||
| Pregnancy Culminates in Labor and Delivery | 887 | ||
| Milk Secretion is Stimulated by the Hormones of Pregnancy | 889 | ||
| 6: Is Aging the Final Stage of Human Development? | 890 | ||
| Chapter Review | 891 | ||
| Chapter 42: Plant Anatomy and Nutrient Transport | 895 | ||
| 1: How are Plant Bodies Organized? | 897 | ||
| 2: How Do Plants Grow? | 898 | ||
| 3: What are the Tissues and Cell Types of Plants? | 900 | ||
| The Dermal Tissue System Covers the Plant Body | 900 | ||
| The Ground Tissue System Makes Up Most of the Young Plant Body | 900 | ||
| The Vascular Tissue System Transports Water and Nutrients | 902 | ||
| 4: What are the Structures and Functions of Leaves? | 903 | ||
| The Epidermis Regulates the Movement of Gases into and Out of a Leaf | 903 | ||
| Photosynthesis Occurs in Mesophyll Cells | 904 | ||
| Veins Transport Water and Nutrients throughout the Leaf | 904 | ||
| Many Plants Produce Specialized Leaves | 904 | ||
| 5: What are the Structures and Functions of Stems? | 905 | ||
| Primary Growth Produces the Structures of a young Stem | 905 | ||
| Secondary Growth Produces Thicker, Stronger Stems | 905 | ||
| Many Plants Produce Specialized Stems or Branches | 908 | ||
| 6: What are the Structures and Functions of Roots? | 908 | ||
| The Root Cap Shields the Apical Meritem | 908 | ||
| The Epidermis of the Root is Permeable to Water and Minerals | 908 | ||
| The Cortex Stores Food and Controls the Absorption of Water and Minerals into the Root | 909 | ||
| The Vascular Cylinder Contains Conductingt Issues and Forms Branch Roots | 911 | ||
| Roots may Undergo Secondary Growth | 911 | ||
| 7: How Do Plants Acquire Nutrients? | 911 | ||
| Roots Transport Minerals from the Soil into the Xylem of the Vascular Cylinder | 911 | ||
| Roots take Up Water from the Soil by Osmosis | 912 | ||
| Symbiotic Relationships Help Plants acquire Nutrients | 914 | ||
| 8: How Do Plants move Water and Minerals From Roots to Leaves? | 915 | ||
| The Cohesion–Tension Mechanism Explains Water Movement in Xylem | 915 | ||
| Minerals Move Up the Xylem Dissolved in Water | 916 | ||
| Stomata Control the Rate of Transpiration | 916 | ||
| 9: How Do Plants Transport Sugars? | 919 | ||
| The Pressure-Flow Mechanism Explains Sugar Movement in Phloem | 919 | ||
| Chapter Review | 921 | ||
| Chapter 43: Plant Reproduction and Development | 927 | ||
| 1: How Do Plants Reproduce? | 928 | ||
| The Plant Sexual Life Cycle Alternates between Diploid and Haploid Stages | 928 | ||
| 2: What are the Functions and Structures of Flowers? | 930 | ||
| Flowers are the Reproductive Structures of Angiosperms | 931 | ||
| The Pollen Grain is the Male Gametophyte | 933 | ||
| The Female Gametophyte Forms within the Ovule | 934 | ||
| Pollination of the Flower Leads to Fertilization | 934 | ||
| 3: How Do Fruits and Seeds Develop? | 935 | ||
| The Fruit Develops from the Ovary | 935 | ||
| The Seed Develops from the Ovule | 936 | ||
| 4: How Do Seeds Germinate and Grow? | 937 | ||
| Seed Dormancy Helps Ensure Germinationat an Appropriate Time | 937 | ||
| During Germination, the Root Emerges First, Followed by the Shoot | 937 | ||
| 5: How Do Plants and their Pollinators Interact? | 939 | ||
| Some Flowers Provide Food for Pollinators | 939 | ||
| Some Flowers are Mating Decoys | 940 | ||
| Some Flowers Provide Nurseries for Pollinators | 942 | ||
| 6: How Do Fruits Help to Disperse Seeds? | 942 | ||
| Explosive Fruits Shoot Out Seeds | 942 | ||
| Lightweight Fruits may be Carried by the Wind | 942 | ||
| Floating Fruits Allow Water Dispersal | 942 | ||
| Clingy or Edible Fruits are Dispersed by Animals | 943 | ||
| Chapter Review | 944 | ||
| Chapter 44: Plant Responses to the Environment | 949 | ||
| 1: What are Some Major Plant Hormones? | 950 | ||
| 2: How Do Hormones Regulate Plant Life Cycles? | 951 | ||
| Each Plant Life Cycle Begins with a Seed | 951 | ||
| Auxin Controls the Orientation of the Sprouting Seedling | 952 | ||
| The Growing Plant Emerges and Reaches Upward | 954 | ||
| Auxin and Cytokinin Control Stem and Root Branching | 955 | ||
| Plants Sense and Respond to light and Darkness | 957 | ||
| Hormones Coordinate the Development and Ripening of Fruits and Seeds | 958 | ||
| Senescence and Dormancy Prepare the Plant for Winter | 959 | ||
| 3: How Do Plants Communicate, Defend themselves, and Capture Prey? | 960 | ||
| Plants may Summon Insect “Bodyguards” When Attacked | 960 | ||
| Attacked Plants Defend themselves | 960 | ||
| Wounded Plants Warn their Neighbors | 961 | ||
| Sensitive Plants React to Touch | 961 | ||
| Carnivorous Sundews and Bladderworts Respond Rapidly to Prey | 961 | ||
| Chapter Review | 963 | ||
| Chapter 45: Biotechnology | 967 | ||
| 1: What is Biotechnology? | 969 | ||
| 2: How does DNA Recombine in Nature? | 969 | ||
| Sexual Reproduction Recombines DNA | 970 | ||
| Transformation may Combine DNA from Different Bacterial Species | 970 | ||
| Viruses may Transfer DNA among Species | 972 | ||
| 3: How is Biotechnology used in Forensic Science? | 972 | ||
| The Polymerase Chain Reaction Amplifies DNA | 973 | ||
| Differences in Short Tandem Repeats are used to Identify Individuals by their DNA | 974 | ||
| Gel Electrophoresis Separates DNA Segments | 975 | ||
| DNA Probes are used to Label Specific Nucleotide Sequences | 975 | ||
| Unrelated People Almost Never have Identical DNA Profiles | 975 | ||
| 4: How is Biotechnology used to make Genetically Modified Organisms? | 979 | ||
| The Desired Gene is Isolated or Synthesized | 979 | ||
| The Gene is Cloned | 979 | ||
| The Gene is Inserted into a Host Organism | 980 | ||
| 5: How is Biotechnology used in Agriculture? | 980 | ||
| Many Crops are Genetically Modified | 980 | ||
| Genetically Modified Plants may be used to Produce Medicines | 981 | ||
| Genetically Modified Animals may Beuseful in Agriculture and Medicine | 982 | ||
| 6: How is Biotechnology used to Learn about the Genomes of Humans and other Organisms? | 982 | ||
| 7: How is Biotechnology used for Medical Diagnosis and Treatment? | 983 | ||
| DNA Technology can be used to Diagnose Inherited Disorders | 983 | ||
| DNA Technology can Help to Treat Disease | 984 | ||
| 8: What are the Major Ethical issues of Modern Biotechnology? | 986 | ||
| Should Genetically Modified Organisms be Permitted in Agriculture? | 987 | ||
| Should the Genome of Humans be Changed by Biotechnology? | 988 | ||
| Chapter Review | 991 | ||
| Appendix | 995 | ||
| Appendix: Biological Vocabulary: Common Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes | 995 | ||
| Appendix: Classification of Major Groups of Eukaryotic Organisms | 999 | ||
| Index | 1001 | ||
| Back Cover | Back Cover |