Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
For Introductory Physical Geography Courses
Among the most highly regarded in physical geography, Robert Christopherson’s bestselling texts are known for their meticulous attention to detail, currency, accuracy, and rich integration of climate change science. Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography, Ninth Edition is uniquely organized to present Earth systems topics as they naturally occur: atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere. This interconnected and organic systems-based approach is highlighted in the strong pedagogical tools, structured learning path, and up-to-date information found in the text. This new edition presents bold new features that cultivate an active learning environment both in and outside the classroom.
The Ninth Edition can be made available with MasteringGeography™ , the most effective and widely used online tutorial, homework, and assessment system for the sciences. Note: You are purchasing a standalone product; MasteringGeography does not come packaged with this content. MasteringGeography is not a self-paced technology and should only be purchased when required by an instructor.
MasteringGeography will provide an interactive and engaging learning experience for your students. Here’s how:
- Personalize learning with MasteringGeography: MasteringGeography provides students with engaging and interactive experiences that coach them through introductory physical geography with specific wrong-answer feedback, hints, and a wide variety of educationally effective content.
- Leverage strong pedagogical tools and a structured active learning path: The text reinforces central hallmark physical geography themes of Earth systems, human-Earth relations, and global climate change by providing a consistent framework for mastering chapter concepts.
- Teach with current and relevant content. An emphasis on currency provides students with compelling reasons for learning physical geography.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cover | Cover | ||
| Geosystems | 3 | ||
| Copyright | 4 | ||
| Dedication | 5 | ||
| Brief Contents | 6 | ||
| Contents | 7 | ||
| Preface | 16 | ||
| Digital and Print Resources | 20 | ||
| Book Walkthrough | 22 | ||
| Chapter 1: Essentials of Geography | 28 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 28 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Shale Gas: An Energy Resource for the Future? | 29 | ||
| The Science of Geography | 31 | ||
| The Geographic Continuum | 31 | ||
| Geographic Analysis | 31 | ||
| The Scientific Process | 33 | ||
| Human–Earth Interactions in the 21st Century | 35 | ||
| Georeport 1.1: Welcome to the Anthropocene | 35 | ||
| Critical Thinking 1.1: What is Your Footprint? | 36 | ||
| Earth Systems Concepts | 36 | ||
| Systems Theory | 36 | ||
| Georeport 1.2: Amphibians at thresholds | 38 | ||
| Systems Organization in Geosystems | 39 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 1: Exploring Earth Systems | 40 | ||
| Earth’s Dimensions | 42 | ||
| Georeport 1.3: Earth's unique hydrosphere | 42 | ||
| Location and Time on Earth | 44 | ||
| Latitude | 45 | ||
| Critical Thinking 1.2: Latitudinal Geographic Zones and Temperature | 47 | ||
| Longitude | 47 | ||
| Great Circles and Small Circles | 47 | ||
| Critical Thinking 1.3: Where are You? | 48 | ||
| Meridians and Global Time | 48 | ||
| Maps and Cartography | 50 | ||
| The Scale of Maps | 50 | ||
| Georeport 1.4: The world's most accurate clock | 50 | ||
| Georeport 1.5: Magellan's crew loses a day | 51 | ||
| Critical Thinking 1.4: Find and Calculate Map Scales | 52 | ||
| Map Projections | 52 | ||
| Modern Tools and Techniques for Geoscience | 54 | ||
| Global Positioning System | 55 | ||
| Georeport 1.6: GPS origins | 55 | ||
| Remote Sensing | 56 | ||
| Georeport 1.7: Polar-orbiting satellites predict Hurricane Sandy's path | 57 | ||
| Geographic Information Systems | 59 | ||
| Critical Thinking 1.5: Test Your Knowledge about Satellite Imagery | 59 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 61 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 61 | ||
| Part I: The Energy–Atmosphere System | 64 | ||
| Chapter 2: Solar Energy to Earth and the Seasons | 66 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 66 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Chasing the Subsolar Point | 67 | ||
| The Solar System, Sun, and Earth | 68 | ||
| Solar System Formation | 69 | ||
| Dimensions and Distances | 69 | ||
| Georeport 2.1: Sun and Solar System on the move | 69 | ||
| Solar Energy: From Sun to Earth | 69 | ||
| Solar Activity and Solar Wind | 70 | ||
| Georeport 2.2: Recent solar cycles | 70 | ||
| Electromagnetic Spectrum of Radiant Energy | 71 | ||
| Incoming Energy at the Top of the Atmosphere | 73 | ||
| The Seasons | 75 | ||
| Seasonality | 76 | ||
| Critical Thinking 2.1: A Way to Calculate Sunrise and Sunset | 76 | ||
| Reasons for Seasons | 76 | ||
| Georeport 2.3: Why do we always see the same side of the Moon? | 77 | ||
| Critical Thinking 2.2: Astronomical Factors Vary over Long Time Frames | 78 | ||
| Georeport 2.4: Measuring Earth's rotation | 78 | ||
| Annual March of the Seasons | 79 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 2: Earth-Sun Relations | 80 | ||
| Critical Thinking 2.3: Use the Analemma to Find the Subsolar Point | 82 | ||
| The Human Denominator 2: The Earth-Sun System and the Seasons | 83 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 83 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 84 | ||
| Chapter 3: Earth’s Modern Atmosphere | 86 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 86 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Humans Help Define the Atmosphere | 87 | ||
| Atmospheric Composition, Temperature, and Function | 88 | ||
| Atmospheric Profile | 88 | ||
| Georeport 3.1: Earth’s First Atmosphere | 88 | ||
| Atmospheric Composition Criterion | 89 | ||
| Georeport 3.2: Outside the airplane | 89 | ||
| Atmospheric Temperature Criterion | 91 | ||
| Georeport 3.3: Human sources of atmospheric carbon dioxide | 91 | ||
| Critical Thinking 3.1: Where is Your Tropopause? | 93 | ||
| Atmospheric Function Criterion | 93 | ||
| Critical Thinking 3.2: Finding Your Local Ozone | 94 | ||
| Pollutants in the Atmosphere | 95 | ||
| Natural Sources of Air Pollution | 95 | ||
| Focus Study 3.1: Pollution | 96 | ||
| Anthropogenic Pollution | 98 | ||
| Georeport 3.4: NASA's Global Hawks Make Scientific Flights | 98 | ||
| Georeport 3.5: Carbon Monoxide—the colorless, odorless pollutant | 99 | ||
| Focus Study 3.2: Pollution | 100 | ||
| Natural Factors That Affect Pollutants | 102 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 3: Air Pollution | 104 | ||
| Benefits Of The Clean Air Act | 106 | ||
| Critical Thinking 3.3: Evaluating Costs and Benefits | 106 | ||
| The Human Denominator 3: The Shared Global Atmosphere | 107 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 107 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 108 | ||
| Chapter 4: Atmosphere and Surface Energy Balances | 110 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 110 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Melting Sea Ice Opens Arctic Shipping Lanes, However... | 111 | ||
| Energy-Balance Essentials | 112 | ||
| Energy and Heat | 112 | ||
| Energy Pathways and Principles | 114 | ||
| Georeport 4.1: Did light refraction sink the Titanic? | 115 | ||
| Georeport 4.2: Aerosols cool and warm Earth's climate | 117 | ||
| Energy Balance in the Troposphere | 118 | ||
| The Greenhouse Effect and Atmospheric Warming | 118 | ||
| Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance | 119 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 4: Earth–Atmosphere Energy Balance | 120 | ||
| Critical Thinking 4.1: A Kelp Indicator of Surface Energy Dynamics | 122 | ||
| Energy Balance at Earth’s Surface | 123 | ||
| Daily Radiation Patterns | 123 | ||
| A Simplified Surface Energy Budget | 124 | ||
| Critical Thinking 4.2: Applying Energy-Balance Principles to a Solar Cooker | 125 | ||
| Focus Study 4.1: Sustainable Resources | 126 | ||
| The Urban Environment | 128 | ||
| Critical Thinking 4.3: Looking at Your Surface Energy Budget | 130 | ||
| Georeport 4.3: Phoenix leads in urban heat island research | 130 | ||
| The Human Denominator 4: Changes in Atmosphere and Surface Energy Budgets | 131 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 131 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 132 | ||
| Chapter 5: Global Temperatures | 134 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 134 | ||
| Geosystems Now: The Mystery of St. Kilda’s Shrinking Sheep | 135 | ||
| Temperature Concepts and Measurement | 137 | ||
| Temperature Scales | 137 | ||
| Georeport 5.1: The hottest temperature on Earth | 137 | ||
| Measuring Temperature | 138 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 5: Earth’s Highest Land Surface Temperatures | 139 | ||
| Principal Temperature Controls | 140 | ||
| Latitude | 140 | ||
| Altitude and Elevation | 140 | ||
| Georeport 5.2: Alaska and Montana hold U.S. records for low temperatures | 140 | ||
| Cloud Cover | 141 | ||
| Land–Water Heating Differences | 142 | ||
| Critical Thinking 5.1: Compare and Explain Coastal and Inland Temperatures | 145 | ||
| Earth’s Temperature Patterns | 148 | ||
| January and July Global Temperature Maps | 148 | ||
| January and July Polar-Region Temperature Maps | 150 | ||
| Critical Thinking 5.2: Begin a Full Physical Geography Profile of Your Area | 150 | ||
| Georeport 5.3: Polar regions show greatest rates of warming | 151 | ||
| Annual Temperature Range Map | 152 | ||
| Recent Temperature Trends and Human Response | 152 | ||
| Record Temperatures and Greenhouse Warming | 152 | ||
| Focus Study 5.1: Climate Change | 154 | ||
| Heat Stress and the Heat Index | 155 | ||
| Georeport 5.4: Record-breaking heat hits China in 2013 | 156 | ||
| The Human Denominator 5: Global Temperatures | 157 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 157 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 158 | ||
| Chapter 6: Atmospheric and Oceanic Circulations | 160 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 160 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Ocean Currents Bring Invasive Species | 161 | ||
| Wind Essentials | 163 | ||
| Air Pressure | 163 | ||
| Georeport 6.1: Blowing in the wind | 163 | ||
| Wind: Description and Measurement | 164 | ||
| Georeport 6.2: Pressure changes in an airplane cabin | 164 | ||
| Critical Thinking 6.1: Measure the Wind | 166 | ||
| Driving Forces Within the Atmosphere | 166 | ||
| Pressure Gradient Force | 166 | ||
| Coriolis Force | 166 | ||
| Friction Force | 168 | ||
| Summary of Physical Forces on Winds | 168 | ||
| Georeport 6.3: Coriolis: Not a force on sinks or toilets | 168 | ||
| High- and Low-Pressure Systems | 170 | ||
| Atmospheric Patterns of Motion | 170 | ||
| Primary Pressure Areas and Associated Winds | 170 | ||
| Upper Atmospheric Circulation | 173 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 6: Atmospheric Circulation | 174 | ||
| Georeport 6.4: Icelandic ash caught in the jet stream | 177 | ||
| Monsoonal Winds | 178 | ||
| Critical Thinking 6.2: What Causes the North Australian Monsoon? | 179 | ||
| Local Winds | 179 | ||
| Critical Thinking 6.3: Construct Your Own Wind-Power Assessment Report | 180 | ||
| Oceanic Currents | 181 | ||
| Surface Currents | 181 | ||
| Thermohaline Circulation—The Deep Currents | 182 | ||
| Natural Oscillations in Global Circulation | 183 | ||
| El Niño–Southern Oscillation | 183 | ||
| Focus Study 6.1: Sustainable Resources | 184 | ||
| Pacific Decadal Oscillation | 186 | ||
| North Atlantic and Arctic Oscillations | 187 | ||
| Georeport 6.5: 2010–2011 La Niña breaks records | 187 | ||
| The Human Denominator 6: Global Circulation | 188 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 188 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 189 | ||
| Part II: The Water, Weather, and Climate Systems | 192 | ||
| Chapter 7: Water and Atmospheric Moisture | 194 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 194 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Summer Fog Protects the World’s Tallest Trees | 195 | ||
| Water’s Unique Properties | 196 | ||
| Phase Changes and Heat Exchange | 197 | ||
| Critical Thinking 7.1: Iceberg Analysis | 198 | ||
| Georeport 7.1: Breaking roads and pipes | 198 | ||
| Latent Heat Transfer Under Natural Conditions | 199 | ||
| Humidity | 200 | ||
| Relative Humidity | 200 | ||
| Georeport 7.2: Katrina had the power | 200 | ||
| Specialized Expressions of Humidity | 202 | ||
| Instruments for Measuring Humidity | 203 | ||
| Critical Thinking 7.2: Using Relative Humidity and Dew-Point Maps | 203 | ||
| Atmospheric Stability | 204 | ||
| Adiabatic Processes | 204 | ||
| Stable and Unstable Atmospheric Conditions | 205 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 7: Adiabatic Heating and Cooling | 206 | ||
| Clouds and Fog | 208 | ||
| Cloud Formation Processes | 208 | ||
| Cloud Types and Identification | 208 | ||
| Georeport 7.3: Lenticular clouds signal mountain weather | 210 | ||
| Processes That Form Fog | 211 | ||
| Critical Thinking 7.3: Identify Two Kinds of Fog | 212 | ||
| The Human Denominator 7: Atmospheric Moisture | 214 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 214 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 215 | ||
| Chapter 8: Weather | 218 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 218 | ||
| Geosystems Now: On the Front Lines of Intense Weather | 219 | ||
| Air Masses | 220 | ||
| Air Masses Affecting North America | 220 | ||
| Air Mass Modification | 221 | ||
| Atmospheric Lifting Mechanisms | 221 | ||
| Convergent Lifting | 222 | ||
| Convectional Lifting | 222 | ||
| Orographic Lifting | 223 | ||
| Georeport 8.1: Lake-effect snow makes an avalanche of a storm | 223 | ||
| Frontal Lifting (Cold and Warm Fronts) | 225 | ||
| Georeport 8.2: Mountains cause record rains | 225 | ||
| Midlatitude Cyclonic Systems | 228 | ||
| Life Cycle of a Midlatitude Cyclone | 228 | ||
| Weather Maps and Forecasting | 229 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 8: Midlatitude Cyclones | 230 | ||
| Violent Weather | 232 | ||
| Ice Storms and Blizzards | 232 | ||
| Thunderstorms | 232 | ||
| Critical Thinking 8.1: Analyzing a Weather Map | 233 | ||
| Georeport 8.3: Kentucky ice storm causes record power losses | 234 | ||
| Derechos | 236 | ||
| Tornadoes | 237 | ||
| Georeport 8.4: Storm causes Hawai'i hailstorm and tornado | 237 | ||
| Tropical Cyclones | 239 | ||
| Georeport 8.5: Research aircraft dissect Hurricane Karl | 240 | ||
| Focus Study 8.1: Natural Hazards | 244 | ||
| Critical Thinking 8.2: Hazard Perception and Planning: What Seems to be Missing? | 246 | ||
| The Human Denominator 8: Weather | 247 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 247 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 248 | ||
| Chapter 9: Water Resources | 250 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 250 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Earth’s Largest Lake Warms with Changing Climate | 251 | ||
| Water on Earth | 252 | ||
| Georeport 9.1: The water we use | 252 | ||
| Worldwide Equilibrium | 253 | ||
| Distribution of Earth’s Water Today | 253 | ||
| The Hydrologic Cycle | 254 | ||
| Water in the Atmosphere | 254 | ||
| Water at the Surface | 255 | ||
| Water in the Subsurface | 256 | ||
| Water Budgets and Resource Analysis | 256 | ||
| Components of the Water Budget | 256 | ||
| The Water-Budget Equation | 260 | ||
| Sample Water Budgets | 260 | ||
| Critical Thinking 9.1: Your Local Water Budget | 260 | ||
| Water-Budget Application: Hurricane Camille | 261 | ||
| Drought: The Water Deficit | 262 | ||
| Surface Water Resources | 263 | ||
| Snow and Ice | 263 | ||
| Rivers and Lakes | 263 | ||
| Georeport 9.2: How is water measured? | 263 | ||
| Focus Study 9.1: Climate Change | 266 | ||
| Georeport 9.3: Satellite GRACE enables groundwater measurements | 268 | ||
| Wetlands | 269 | ||
| Groundwater Resources | 269 | ||
| The Groundwater Environment | 270 | ||
| Overuse of Groundwater | 271 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 9: Groundwater | 272 | ||
| Focus Study 9.2: Sustainable Resources | 274 | ||
| Pollution of Groundwater | 276 | ||
| Our Water Supply | 276 | ||
| Critical Thinking 9.2: Calculate Your Water Footprint | 277 | ||
| Georeport 9.4: The water it takes for food and necessities | 277 | ||
| Water Supply in the United States | 278 | ||
| Water Withdrawal and Consumption | 279 | ||
| Critical Thinking 9.3: That Next Glass of Water | 279 | ||
| Future Considerations | 279 | ||
| The Human Denominator 9: Water Use | 280 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 280 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 281 | ||
| Chapter 10: Global Climate Systems | 284 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 284 | ||
| Geosystems Now: A Large-Scale Look at Puerto Rico’s Climate | 285 | ||
| Review of Earth’s Climate System | 286 | ||
| Classifying Earth’s Climates | 287 | ||
| Critical Thinking 10.1: Finding Your Climate | 287 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 10: Earth’s Climate System | 288 | ||
| Tropical Rain Forest Climates | 292 | ||
| Tropical Monsoon Climates | 293 | ||
| Tropical Savanna Climates | 294 | ||
| Georeport 10.1: Tropical climate zones advance to higher latitudes | 294 | ||
| Humid Subtropical Hot-Summer Climates | 295 | ||
| Humid Subtropical Winter-Dry Climates | 295 | ||
| Marine West Coast Climates | 295 | ||
| Mediterranean Dry-Summer Climates | 297 | ||
| Humid Continental Hot-Summer Climates | 300 | ||
| Humid Continental Mild-Summer Climates | 300 | ||
| Subarctic Climates | 301 | ||
| Tundra Climates | 304 | ||
| Georeport 10.2: Boundary considerations and shifting climates | 304 | ||
| Ice-Cap and Ice-Sheet Climates | 305 | ||
| Polar Marine Climates | 305 | ||
| Georeport 10.3: Tundra climates respond to warming | 305 | ||
| Characteristics of Dry Climates | 306 | ||
| Tropical, Subtropical Hot Desert Climates | 307 | ||
| Midlatitude Cold Desert Climates | 308 | ||
| Tropical, Subtropical Hot Steppe Climates | 308 | ||
| Midlatitude Cold Steppe Climates | 308 | ||
| Climate Regions and Climate Change | 308 | ||
| The Human Denominator 10: Climate Regions | 311 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 311 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 312 | ||
| Chapter 11: Climate Change | 314 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 314 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Greenhouse Gases Awaken in the Arctic | 315 | ||
| Population Growth and Fossil Fuels—The Setting for Climate Change | 316 | ||
| Critical Thinking 11.1: Crossing The 450-ppm Threshold for Carbon Dioxide | 318 | ||
| Deciphering Past Climates | 318 | ||
| Methods for Long-Term Climate Reconstruction | 319 | ||
| Earth’s Long-Term Climate History | 321 | ||
| Methods for Short-Term Climate Reconstruction | 323 | ||
| Earth’s Short-Term Climate History | 325 | ||
| Mechanisms of Natural Climate Fluctuation | 327 | ||
| Solar Variability | 327 | ||
| Earth’s Orbital Cycles | 327 | ||
| Continental Position and Topography | 328 | ||
| Atmospheric Gases and Aerosols | 328 | ||
| Climate Feedbacks and the Carbon Budget | 328 | ||
| Earth’s Carbon Budget | 328 | ||
| Water-Vapor Feedback | 329 | ||
| Carbon–Climate Feedbacks | 329 | ||
| CO2–Weathering Feedback | 329 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 11: The Global Carbon Budget | 330 | ||
| Evidence for Present Climate Change | 332 | ||
| Temperature | 333 | ||
| Ice Melt | 333 | ||
| Sea-Level Rise | 335 | ||
| Georeport 11.1: Rainfall over Australia temporarily halts global sea-level rise | 335 | ||
| Extreme Events | 336 | ||
| Causes of Present Climate Change | 337 | ||
| Contributions of Greenhouse Gases | 337 | ||
| Georeport 11.2: China leads the world in overall CO2 emissions | 337 | ||
| Sources of Radiative Forcing | 339 | ||
| Focus Study 11.1: Climate Change | 340 | ||
| Critical Thinking 11.2: Thinking Through an Action Plan to Reduce Human Climate Forcing | 340 | ||
| Georeport 11.3: Causes of extreme weather events in a changing climate | 341 | ||
| Scientific Consensus | 342 | ||
| Climate Models and Forecasts | 342 | ||
| Radiative Forcing Scenarios | 342 | ||
| Future Temperature Scenarios | 343 | ||
| Sea-Level Projections | 344 | ||
| The Path Ahead | 344 | ||
| Taking a Position on Climate Change | 344 | ||
| Action Now Means “No Regrets” | 345 | ||
| Mitigating Climate Change: What Can You Do? | 346 | ||
| The Human Denominator 11: Taking Action on Climate Change | 347 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 347 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 348 | ||
| Part III: The Earth–Atmosphere Interface | 350 | ||
| Chapter 12: The Dynamic Planet | 352 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 352 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Earth’s Migrating Magnetic Poles | 353 | ||
| The Pace of Change | 354 | ||
| Critical Thinking 12.1: Thoughts about an “Anthropocene Epoch” | 356 | ||
| Earth’s Structure and Internal Energy | 356 | ||
| Earth’s Core and Mantle | 357 | ||
| Earth’s Crust | 357 | ||
| Georeport 12.1: Radioactive elements drive Earth's internal heat | 357 | ||
| The Asthenosphere and Lithosphere | 358 | ||
| Adjustments in the Crust | 358 | ||
| Georeport 12.2: Earth on the scales | 358 | ||
| Earth’s Magnetism | 359 | ||
| Georeport 12.3: Deep-drilling the continental crust | 359 | ||
| Earth Materials and the Rock Cycle | 360 | ||
| Igneous Processes | 361 | ||
| Sedimentary Processes | 362 | ||
| Metamorphic Processes | 366 | ||
| The Rock Cycle | 366 | ||
| Plate Tectonics | 368 | ||
| Continental Drift | 368 | ||
| Seafloor Spreading | 368 | ||
| Subduction | 372 | ||
| Critical Thinking 12.2: Tracking Your Location Since Pangaea | 372 | ||
| Plate Boundaries | 372 | ||
| Earthquake and Volcanic Activity | 373 | ||
| Georeport 12.4: Spreading along the East Pacific Rise | 373 | ||
| Hot Spots | 374 | ||
| Focus Study 12.1: Sustainable Resources | 376 | ||
| Critical Thinking 12.3: How Fast is the Pacific Plate Moving? | 378 | ||
| The Geologic Cycle | 378 | ||
| The Human Denominator 12: Earth Material and Plate Tectonics | 379 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 379 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 12: The Geologic Cycle | 380 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 382 | ||
| Chapter 13: Tectonics, Earthquakes, and Volcanism | 384 | ||
| Key Learning concepts | 384 | ||
| Geosystems Now: The San Jacinto Fault Connection | 385 | ||
| Earth’s Surface Relief | 386 | ||
| Studying Earth’s Topography | 386 | ||
| Orders of Relief | 387 | ||
| Earth’s Hypsometry | 387 | ||
| Earth’s Topographic Regions | 388 | ||
| Critical Thinking 13.1: Comparing Topographic Regionsat Different Scales | 388 | ||
| Georeport 13.1: Mount Everest measured by GPS | 388 | ||
| Crustal Formation | 389 | ||
| Continental Shields | 389 | ||
| Building Continental Crust and Accretion of Terranes | 390 | ||
| Crustal Deformation | 391 | ||
| Folding and Broad Warping | 392 | ||
| Faulting | 394 | ||
| Orogenesis (Mountain Building) | 397 | ||
| Types of Orogenesis | 399 | ||
| The Tetons and the Sierra Nevada | 399 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 13: Mountain Building | 400 | ||
| The Appalachian Mountains | 402 | ||
| Earthquakes | 402 | ||
| Earthquake Anatomy | 403 | ||
| Earthquake Intensity and Magnitude | 403 | ||
| Georeport 13.2: Ongoing earthquake activity in Sumatra, Indonesia | 403 | ||
| Fault Mechanics | 405 | ||
| Focus Study 13.1: Natural Hazards | 406 | ||
| Earthquake Forecasting | 408 | ||
| Earthquake Planning | 409 | ||
| Georeport 13.3: Large earthquakes affect Earth's axial tilt | 409 | ||
| Volcanism | 410 | ||
| Settings for Volcanic Activity | 410 | ||
| Volcanic Materials | 411 | ||
| Volcanic Landforms | 411 | ||
| Effusive Eruptions | 412 | ||
| Explosive Eruptions | 414 | ||
| Georeport 13.4: Slow slip events across Kīlauea's south flank | 414 | ||
| Volcano Forecasting and Planning | 415 | ||
| Critical Thinking 13.2: Ocean-Floor Tectonics Tour | 415 | ||
| The Human Denominator 13: Tectonics | 417 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 417 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 418 | ||
| Chapter 14: Weathering, Karst Landscapes, and Mass Movement | 420 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 420 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Human-Caused Mass Movement at the Kingston Steam Plant, Tennessee | 421 | ||
| Landmass Denudation | 422 | ||
| Dynamic Equilibrium Approach to Understanding Landforms | 423 | ||
| Slopes | 423 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 14: Hillslopes As Open Systems | 424 | ||
| Critical Thinking 14.1: Find a Slope; Apply the Concepts | 426 | ||
| Weathering Processes | 426 | ||
| Factors Influencing Weathering Processes | 427 | ||
| Physical Weathering Processes | 428 | ||
| Georeport 14.1: Rockfalls in Yosemite | 428 | ||
| Chemical Weathering Processes | 429 | ||
| Georeport 14.2: Weathering on bridges in Central Park, NYC | 432 | ||
| Karst Topography | 433 | ||
| Formation of Karst | 434 | ||
| Features of Karst Landscapes | 434 | ||
| Georeport 14.3: Sinkholes caused by human activities | 435 | ||
| Caves and Caverns | 436 | ||
| Georeport 14.4: Amateurs make cave discoveries | 437 | ||
| Mass-Movement Processes | 438 | ||
| Mass-Movement Mechanics | 438 | ||
| Classes of Mass Movements | 439 | ||
| Focus Study 14.1: Natural Hazards | 441 | ||
| Humans as a Geomorphic Agent | 443 | ||
| Georeport 14.5: Open pit mining in the Amazon region | 443 | ||
| The Human Denominator 14: Weathering, Karst, and Hillslopes | 445 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 445 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 446 | ||
| Chapter 15: River Systems | 448 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 448 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Environmental Effects of Dams on the Nu River in China | 449 | ||
| Drainage Basins and Drainage Patterns | 450 | ||
| Drainage Divides | 451 | ||
| Critical Thinking 15.1: Locate Your Drainage Basin | 453 | ||
| Drainage Basins as Open Systems | 453 | ||
| International Drainage Basins | 453 | ||
| Internal Drainage | 453 | ||
| Drainage Patterns | 454 | ||
| Critical Thinking 15.2: Identifying Drainage Patterns | 455 | ||
| Basic Fluvial Concepts | 455 | ||
| Gradient | 455 | ||
| Base Level | 455 | ||
| Stream Discharge | 455 | ||
| Fluvial Processes and Landforms | 458 | ||
| Stream Channel Processes | 458 | ||
| Channel Patterns | 461 | ||
| Focus Study 15.1: Environmental Restoration | 462 | ||
| Graded Streams | 465 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 15: Meandering: Streams | 466 | ||
| Depositional Landforms | 469 | ||
| Georeport 15.1: The disappearing Nile River delta | 473 | ||
| Floods and River Management | 474 | ||
| Humans and Floodplains | 474 | ||
| Georeport 15.2: What is a bayou? | 474 | ||
| Flood Protection | 475 | ||
| Flood Probability | 476 | ||
| Floodplain Management | 476 | ||
| Georeport 15.3: America's levees | 476 | ||
| The Human Denominator 15: Rivers, Floodplains, and Deltas | 478 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 478 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 479 | ||
| Chapter 16: Oceans, Coastal Systems, and Wind Processes | 482 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 482 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Sand Dunes Prevent Coastline Erosion during Hurricane Sandy | 483 | ||
| Global Oceans and Seas | 484 | ||
| Properties of Seawater | 485 | ||
| Physical Structure and Human Impacts | 486 | ||
| Georeport 16.1: The Mediterranean Sea is getting saltier | 486 | ||
| Coastal System Components | 487 | ||
| Focus Study 16.1: Pollution | 488 | ||
| The Coastal Environment | 489 | ||
| Sea Level | 490 | ||
| Georeport 16.2: Sea-level variations along the U.S. coastline | 490 | ||
| Critical Thinking 16.1: Thinking Through a Rising Sea Level | 491 | ||
| Coastal System Actions | 491 | ||
| Tides | 491 | ||
| Waves | 493 | ||
| Georeport 16.3: Surprise waves flood a cruise ship | 495 | ||
| Focus Study 16.2: Natural Hazards | 498 | ||
| Coastal System Outputs | 498 | ||
| Coastal Erosion | 498 | ||
| Coastal Deposition | 500 | ||
| Barrier Beaches and Islands | 503 | ||
| Critical Thinking 16.2: Allocating Responsibility and Cost for Coastal Hazards | 505 | ||
| Coral Formations | 505 | ||
| Coastal Wetlands | 507 | ||
| Georeport 16.4: Ocean acidification impacts corals | 507 | ||
| Wind Processes | 509 | ||
| Eolian Transport of Dust and Sand | 509 | ||
| Eolian Erosion | 510 | ||
| Desert Pavement | 512 | ||
| Eolian Deposition | 512 | ||
| Georeport 16.5: Human activities disturb eolian landforms | 513 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 16: Wind-Blown Dune Forms | 514 | ||
| Critical Thinking 16.3: The Nearest Eolian Features | 517 | ||
| The Human Denominator 16: Oceans, Coasts, and Dunes | 518 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 518 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 519 | ||
| Chapter 17: Glacial and Periglacial Landscapes | 522 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 522 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Tidewater Glaciers and Ice Shelves Give Way to Warming | 523 | ||
| Snow into Ice—The Basis of Glaciers | 524 | ||
| Properties of Snow | 524 | ||
| Formation of Glacial Ice | 525 | ||
| Types of Glaciers | 525 | ||
| Alpine Glaciers | 525 | ||
| Focus Study 17.1: Natural Hazards | 526 | ||
| Continental Ice Sheets | 527 | ||
| Georeport 17.1: Global glacial ice losses | 527 | ||
| Glacial Processes | 528 | ||
| Glacial Mass Balance | 528 | ||
| Glacial Movement | 529 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 17: Glaciers As Dynamic Systems | 530 | ||
| Georeport 17.2: Greenland Ice Sheet melting | 532 | ||
| Glacial Landforms | 533 | ||
| Erosional Landforms | 533 | ||
| Critical Thinking 17.1: Looking for Glacial Features | 535 | ||
| Depositional Landforms | 536 | ||
| Periglacial Landscapes | 539 | ||
| Permafrost and Its Distribution | 539 | ||
| Periglacial Processes | 541 | ||
| Humans and Periglacial Landscapes | 542 | ||
| Georeport 17.3: Feedback loops from fossil-fuel exploration to permafrost thawing | 542 | ||
| The Pleistocene Epoch | 543 | ||
| Ice-Age Landscapes | 543 | ||
| Paleolakes | 545 | ||
| Georeport 17.4: Glacial ice might protect underlying mountains | 545 | ||
| Arctic and Antarctic Regions | 546 | ||
| Critical Thinking 17.2: A Sample of Life at the Polar Station | 547 | ||
| Recent Polar Region Changes | 547 | ||
| Critical Thinking 17.3: The IPY Accomplishment Continues | 549 | ||
| The Human Denominator 17: Glaciers and Permafrost | 550 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 550 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 551 | ||
| Part IV: Soils, Ecosystems, and Biomes | 554 | ||
| Chapter 18: The Geography of Soils | 556 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 556 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Desertification: Declining Soils and Agriculture in Earth’s Drylands | 557 | ||
| Soil-Formation Factors and Soil Profiles | 558 | ||
| Natural Factors in Soil Development | 558 | ||
| Soil Horizons | 559 | ||
| Soil Characteristics | 560 | ||
| Physical Properties | 560 | ||
| Georeport 18.1: Soil compaction—causes and effects | 562 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 18: Biological Activity in Soils | 563 | ||
| Chemical Properties | 564 | ||
| Human Impacts on Soils | 565 | ||
| Soil Erosion | 565 | ||
| Georeport 18.2: Slipping through our fingers | 566 | ||
| Desertification | 567 | ||
| Georeport 18.3: Overgrazing effects on Argentina's grasslands | 567 | ||
| Critical Thinking 18.1: Soil Losses—What to Do? | 568 | ||
| Soil Classification | 568 | ||
| Soil Taxonomy | 568 | ||
| The 12 Soil Orders of the Soil Taxonomy | 569 | ||
| Critical Thinking 18.2: Soil Observations | 569 | ||
| Focus Study 18.1: Pollution | 574 | ||
| Georeport 18.4: Loss of marginal lands puts pressure on prime lands | 577 | ||
| The Human Denominator 18: Soils and Land Use | 583 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 583 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 584 | ||
| Chapter 19: Ecosystem Essentials | 586 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 586 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Species’ Distributions Shift with Climate Change | 587 | ||
| Energy Flows and Nutrient Cycles | 588 | ||
| Converting Energy to Biomass | 589 | ||
| Elemental Cycles | 592 | ||
| Energy Pathways | 595 | ||
| Georeport 19.1: Carbon cycle response to the Mount Pinatubo eruption | 595 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 19: Coastal Dead Zones | 596 | ||
| Communities and Species Distributions | 601 | ||
| The Niche Concept | 601 | ||
| Species Interactions | 602 | ||
| Critical Thinking 19.1: Mutualism? Parasitism? Where Do We Fit in? | 603 | ||
| Abiotic Influences | 603 | ||
| Georeport 19.2: Sea turtles navigate using Earth's magnetic field | 603 | ||
| Limiting Factors | 604 | ||
| Disturbance and Succession | 604 | ||
| Critical Thinking 19.2: Observe Ecosystem Disturbances | 605 | ||
| Focus Study 19.1: Natural Hazards | 606 | ||
| Biodiversity, Evolution, and Ecosystem Stability | 609 | ||
| Georeport 19.3: Another take on lake–bog succession | 609 | ||
| Biological Evolution Delivers Biodiversity | 610 | ||
| Biodiversity Fosters Ecosystem Stability | 610 | ||
| Biodiversity on the Decline | 611 | ||
| Georeport 19.4: Will species adapt to climate change? | 612 | ||
| Focus Study 19.2: Environmental Restoration | 614 | ||
| The Human Denominator 19: Ecosystems and Biodiversity | 616 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 616 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 617 | ||
| Chapter 20: Terrestrial Biomes | 620 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts | 620 | ||
| Geosystems Now: Invasive Species Arrive at Tristan da Cunha | 621 | ||
| Biogeographic Divisions | 622 | ||
| Biogeographic Realms | 622 | ||
| Biomes | 623 | ||
| Georeport 20.1: A new look at Wallace's zoogeographic regions | 623 | ||
| Invasive Species | 624 | ||
| Georeport 20.2: Plant communities survive under glacial ice | 624 | ||
| Earth’s Terrestrial Biomes | 627 | ||
| Critical Thinking 20.1: Reality Check | 627 | ||
| Tropical Rain Forest | 627 | ||
| Critical Thinking 20.2: Tropical Forests: A Global or Local Resource? | 631 | ||
| Tropical Seasonal Forest and Scrub | 631 | ||
| Tropical Savanna | 631 | ||
| Georeport 20.3: Tropical rain forests as nature’s medicine cabinet | 631 | ||
| Geosystems in Action 20: Tropical Rain Forests and Amazon Deforestation | 632 | ||
| Midlatitude Broadleaf and Mixed Forest | 634 | ||
| Boreal and Montane Forest | 635 | ||
| Temperate Rain Forest | 636 | ||
| Mediterranean Shrubland | 637 | ||
| Midlatitude Grassland | 638 | ||
| Deserts | 639 | ||
| Georeport 20.4: Biodiversity and food sources | 639 | ||
| Arctic and Alpine Tundra | 640 | ||
| Critical Thinking 20.3: A Shifting-Climate Hypothetical | 641 | ||
| Georeport 20.5: The Porcupine caribou herd | 641 | ||
| Conservation, Management, and Human Biomes | 642 | ||
| Island Biogeography for Species Preservation | 642 | ||
| Focus Study 20.1: Environmental Restoration | 643 | ||
| Aquatic Ecosystem Management | 644 | ||
| Anthropogenic Biomes | 644 | ||
| The Human Denominator 20: Anthropogenic Environments | 645 | ||
| Geosystems Connection | 645 | ||
| Key Learning Concepts Review | 646 | ||
| Appendix A | 648 | ||
| Maps in this Text and Topographic Maps | 648 | ||
| Appendix B | 653 | ||
| The Köppen Climate Classification System | 653 | ||
| Appendix C | 656 | ||
| Common Conversions | 656 | ||
| Glossary | 658 | ||
| Index | 672 |