Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
In 1858, Drs. Henry Gray and Henry Vandyke Carter created a book for their surgical colleagues that established an enduring standard among anatomical texts. After more than 150 years of continuous publication, Gray’s Anatomy remains the definitive, comprehensive reference on the subject, offering ready access to the information you need to ensure safe, effective practice.
This 41st edition has been meticulously revised and updated throughout, reflecting the very latest understanding of clinical anatomy from field leaders around the world. The book’s traditional lavish art programme and clear text have been further honed and enhanced, while major advances in imaging techniques and the new insights they bring are fully captured in new state-of-the-art X-ray, CT, MR, and ultrasonic images.
- Presents the most detailed and dependable coverage of anatomy available anywhere.
- Regional organization collects all relevant material on each body area together in one place, making access to core information easier for clinical readers.
- Anatomical information is matched with key clinical information where relevant.
- Numerous clinical discussions emphasize considerations that may affect medical care.
- Each chapter has been edited by experts in their field, ensuring access to the very latest evidence-based information on that topic.
- More than 1,000 completely new photographs, including an extensive electronic collection of the latest X-ray, CT, MR, and histological images.
- Carefully selected electronic enhancements include additional text, tables, illustrations, labelled imaging and videos – as well as 24 specially invited ‘Commentaries’ on new and emerging topics related to anatomy.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| Gray's Anatomy | i | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Table Of Contents | v | ||
| Preface | ix | ||
| Preface Commentary The continuing relevance of anatomy in current surgical practice and research | e1 | ||
| References | e3 | ||
| Acknowledgements | x | ||
| Contributors to the forty-first edition | xi | ||
| Historical introduction | e5 | ||
| The First Edition | e5 | ||
| The Book Survives | e6 | ||
| The Missing Obituary | e6 | ||
| A Succession of Editors | e7 | ||
| Key Edition: 1905 | e7 | ||
| The Nomenclature Controversy | e7 | ||
| After World War II | e7 | ||
| Key Edition: 1973 | e7 | ||
| The Doctors’ Bible | e9 | ||
| Acknowledgements | e9 | ||
| References | e9 | ||
| Anatomical nomenclature | xvi | ||
| Planes, Directions and Relationships | xvi | ||
| Bibliography of Selected Titles | xviii | ||
| Terminology | xviii | ||
| Basic Sciences | xviii | ||
| Imaging and Radiology/Radiological Anatomy | xviii | ||
| Clinical | xviii | ||
| Clinical Examination | xviii | ||
| 1 Cells, Tissues and Systems | 1 | ||
| 1 Basic structure and function of cells | 4 | ||
| Cell Structure | 4 | ||
| General Characteristics of Cells | 4 | ||
| Cellular Organization | 4 | ||
| Plasma membrane | 5 | ||
| Cell coat (glycocalyx) | 6 | ||
| Cytoplasm | 6 | ||
| Compartments and functional organization | 6 | ||
| Endoplasmic reticulum | 6 | ||
| Smooth endoplasmic reticulum | 6 | ||
| Rough endoplasmic reticulum | 6 | ||
| Ribosomes, polyribosomes and protein synthesis | 6 | ||
| Golgi apparatus (Golgi complex) | 6 | ||
| Exocytic (secretory) pathway | 8 | ||
| Endocytic (internalization) pathway | 8 | ||
| Lysosomes | 8 | ||
| Lysosomal dysfunction | 9 | ||
| 26S proteasome | 9 | ||
| Peroxisomes | 9 | ||
| Mitochondria | 9 | ||
| Cytosolic inclusions | 10 | ||
| Lipid droplets | 10 | ||
| Transport across cell membranes | 10 | ||
| Translocation of proteins across intracellular membranes | 10 | ||
| Cell signalling | 10 | ||
| Signalling molecules and their receptors | 10 | ||
| Receptor proteins | 11 | ||
| Intracellular signalling | 11 | ||
| Cytoskeleton | 12 | ||
| Actin filaments (microfilaments) | 12 | ||
| Actin-binding proteins | 12 | ||
| Myosins, the motor proteins | 13 | ||
| Other thin filaments | 13 | ||
| Microtubules | 14 | ||
| Microtubule-associated proteins | 14 | ||
| Centrioles, centrosomes and basal bodies | 14 | ||
| Microtubule-based transport of cargoes | 14 | ||
| Intermediate filaments | 15 | ||
| Nucleus | 15 | ||
| Nuclear envelope | 15 | ||
| Chromatin | 16 | ||
| Chromosomes and telomeres | 17 | ||
| Karyotypes: classification of human chromosomes | 17 | ||
| Nucleolus | 17 | ||
| Cell Division and the Cell Cycle | 18 | ||
| Mitosis and meiosis | 19 | ||
| Mitosis | 19 | ||
| Prophase | 19 | ||
| Prometaphase–metaphase | 19 | ||
| Anaphase | 19 | ||
| Telophase | 20 | ||
| Meiosis | 20 | ||
| Meiosis I | 21 | ||
| Prophase I | 21 | ||
| Leptotene stage | 21 | ||
| Zygotene stage | 21 | ||
| Pachytene stage | 21 | ||
| Diplotene stage | 21 | ||
| Diakinesis | 21 | ||
| Metaphase I | 21 | ||
| Anaphase and telophase I | 21 | ||
| Meiosis II | 21 | ||
| Cell Polarity and Domains | 21 | ||
| Cell surface apical differentiations | 21 | ||
| Cilia and flagella | 22 | ||
| Microvilli | 23 | ||
| Intercellular junctions | 23 | ||
| Cell adhesion molecules | 23 | ||
| Calcium-dependent cell adhesion molecules: cadherins and selectins | 23 | ||
| Calcium-independent cell adhesion molecules: Ig-CAMs, nectins and integrins | 24 | ||
| Specialized intercellular junctions | 25 | ||
| Tight junctions (occluding junctions, zonulae occludentes) | 25 | ||
| Anchoring junctions | 25 | ||
| Zonula adherens (belt desmosome) | 25 | ||
| Fascia adherens | 25 | ||
| Desmosomes (maculae adherentes) | 25 | ||
| Hemidesmosomes | 25 | ||
| Focal adhesion plaques | 25 | ||
| Gap junctions (communicating junctions) | 25 | ||
| Ageing, Cellular Senescence, Cancer and Apoptosis | 25 | ||
| Apoptosis | 26 | ||
| Key References | 27 | ||
| References | 27.e1 | ||
| 2 Integrating cells into tissues | 28 | ||
| Epithelia | 28 | ||
| Classification | 28 | ||
| Unilaminar (simple) epithelia | 28 | ||
| Squamous epithelium | 28 | ||
| Cuboidal and columnar epithelia | 28 | ||
| Pseudostratified epithelium | 29 | ||
| Sensory epithelia | 29 | ||
| Myoepithelial cells | 29 | ||
| Multilaminar (stratified) epithelia | 29 | ||
| Stratified squamous epithelia | 29 | ||
| Keratinized epithelium | 31 | ||
| Non-keratinized epithelium | 31 | ||
| Stratified cuboidal and columnar epithelia | 31 | ||
| Urothelium (urinary or transitional epithelium) | 31 | ||
| Seminiferous epithelium | 32 | ||
| Glands | 32 | ||
| Exocrine Glands | 32 | ||
| Types of secretory process | 32 | ||
| Structural and functional classification | 32 | ||
| Endocrine Glands | 32 | ||
| Control of Glandular Secretion | 33 | ||
| Feedback loops and endocrine axes | 34 | ||
| Basement Membrane and Basal Lamina | 34 | ||
| Reticular Lamina | 34 | ||
| Functions of Basal Lamina | 34 | ||
| Connective and Supporting Tissues | 35 | ||
| Cells of General Connective Tissues | 35 | ||
| Resident cells | 35 | ||
| Fibroblasts | 35 | ||
| Adipocytes (lipocytes, fat cells) | 35 | ||
| Mesenchymal stem cells | 36 | ||
| Migrant cells | 36 | ||
| Macrophages | 36 | ||
| Lymphocytes | 37 | ||
| Mast cells | 37 | ||
| Granulocytes (polymorphonuclear leukocytes) | 37 | ||
| Cells of Specialized Connective Tissues | 37 | ||
| Extracellular Matrix | 37 | ||
| Fibrillar matrix | 38 | ||
| Collagens | 38 | ||
| Type I collagen | 38 | ||
| Types II, III, V and XI collagens | 38 | ||
| Reticular fibres | 38 | ||
| Elastin | 38 | ||
| Interfibrillar matrix | 38 | ||
| Glycosaminoglycans | 38 | ||
| Hyaluronan | 39 | ||
| Proteoglycans | 39 | ||
| Adhesive glycoproteins | 39 | ||
| Fibronectin | 39 | ||
| Laminin | 39 | ||
| Tenascin | 39 | ||
| Classification of Connective Tissues | 39 | ||
| Irregular connective tissues | 39 | ||
| Loose (areolar) connective tissue | 39 | ||
| Dense irregular connective tissue | 39 | ||
| Adipose tissue | 39 | ||
| Regular connective tissues | 40 | ||
| Mucoid tissue | 40 | ||
| Transdifferentiation and Metaplasia | 40 | ||
| Mucosa (Mucous Membrane) | 40 | ||
| Mucus | 40 | ||
| Serosa (Serous Membrane) | 41 | ||
| Fascia | 41 | ||
| Key References | 41 | ||
| References | 41.e1 | ||
| 3 Nervous system | 42 | ||
| Neurones | 42 | ||
| Soma | 42 | ||
| Dendrites | 43 | ||
| Axons | 43 | ||
| Axoplasmic flow | 45 | ||
| Synapses | 45 | ||
| Classification of chemical synapses | 45 | ||
| Type I and II synapses | 47 | ||
| Mechanisms of synaptic activity | 47 | ||
| Neurohormones | 47 | ||
| Neuromodulators | 48 | ||
| Development and plasticity of synapses | 48 | ||
| Neurotransmitter molecules | 48 | ||
| Acetylcholine | 48 | ||
| Monoamines | 48 | ||
| Amino acids | 48 | ||
| ATP and adenosine | 48 | ||
| Nitric oxide | 48 | ||
| Neuropeptides | 49 | ||
| Central Glia | 49 | ||
| Astrocytes | 49 | ||
| Blood–brain barrier | 50 | ||
| Oligodendrocytes | 50 | ||
| Nodes of Ranvier and incisures of Schmidt–Lanterman | 51 | ||
| Myelin and Myelination | 51 | ||
| Ependyma | 52 | ||
| Choroid plexus | 53 | ||
| Microglia | 53 | ||
| Entry of inflammatory cells into the brain | 53 | ||
| Peripheral Nerves | 54 | ||
| Classification of Peripheral Nerve Fibres | 54 | ||
| Connective Tissue Sheaths | 54 | ||
| Epineurium | 54 | ||
| Perineurium | 54 | ||
| Endoneurium | 54 | ||
| Schwann Cells | 55 | ||
| Unmyelinated axons | 55 | ||
| Myelinated axons | 55 | ||
| Nodes of Ranvier | 55 | ||
| Paranodes | 55 | ||
| Juxtaparanodes | 55 | ||
| Schmidt–Lanterman incisures | 55 | ||
| Satellite Cells | 56 | ||
| Enteric glia | 56 | ||
| Olfactory ensheathing glia | 56 | ||
| Sensory Endings | 59 | ||
| General Features of Sensory Receptors | 59 | ||
| Functional Classification of Receptors | 59 | ||
| Free Nerve Endings | 60 | ||
| Encapsulated Endings | 60 | ||
| Meissner’s corpuscles | 61 | ||
| Pacinian corpuscles | 61 | ||
| Ruffini endings | 61 | ||
| Golgi tendon organs | 61 | ||
| Neuromuscular spindles | 62 | ||
| Joint Receptors | 62 | ||
| Neuromuscular Junctions | 63 | ||
| Skeletal Muscle | 63 | ||
| Autonomic Motor Terminations | 64 | ||
| CNS–PNS Transition Zone | 64 | ||
| Conduction of the Nervous Impulse | 65 | ||
| Action Potential | 66 | ||
| Key References | 67 | ||
| References | 67.e1 | ||
| 4 Blood, lymphoid tissues and haemopoiesis | 68 | ||
| Cells of Peripheral Blood | 68 | ||
| Erythrocytes | 68 | ||
| Haemoglobin | 69 | ||
| Lifespan | 69 | ||
| Blood groups | 69 | ||
| Leukocytes | 69 | ||
| Granulocytes | 69 | ||
| Neutrophil granulocytes | 69 | ||
| Eosinophil granulocytes | 70 | ||
| Basophil granulocytes | 70 | ||
| Mononuclear leukocytes | 70 | ||
| Monocytes | 70 | ||
| Lymphocytes | 71 | ||
| B cells | 71 | ||
| T cells | 72 | ||
| Cytotoxic T cells | 72 | ||
| Helper T cells | 72 | ||
| Regulatory T cells | 72 | ||
| Natural killer (NK) cells | 72 | ||
| Platelets | 72 | ||
| Lymphoid Tissues | 73 | ||
| Lymph Nodes | 73 | ||
| Microstructure | 73 | ||
| Lymphatic and vascular supply | 74 | ||
| Cells and cellular zones of lymph nodes | 74 | ||
| Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT) | 75 | ||
| Follicle-associated epithelium | 75 | ||
| Haemopoiesis | 75 | ||
| Bone Marrow | 75 | ||
| Yellow marrow | 75 | ||
| Red marrow | 75 | ||
| Stroma | 76 | ||
| Haemopoietic tissue | 76 | ||
| Cell Lineages | 76 | ||
| Haemopoietic stem cells | 76 | ||
| Lymphocytes | 76 | ||
| B-cell development | 76 | ||
| T-cell (thymocyte) development | 76 | ||
| Erythrocytes | 78 | ||
| Granulocytes | 78 | ||
| Monocytes | 78 | ||
| Platelets | 78 | ||
| Phagocytes and Antigen-Presenting Cells | 78 | ||
| Macrophages | 78 | ||
| Phagocytosis | 79 | ||
| Secretory activities | 79 | ||
| Dendritic Cells | 79 | ||
| Langerhans cells | 80 | ||
| Interdigitating dendritic cells | 80 | ||
| Follicular dendritic cells | 80 | ||
| Key References | 80 | ||
| References | 80.e1 | ||
| 5 Functional anatomy of the musculoskeletal system | 81 | ||
| Cartilage | 81 | ||
| Microstructure of Cartilage | 81 | ||
| Extracellular matrix | 81 | ||
| Cartilage cells | 81 | ||
| Hyaline cartilage | 82 | ||
| Fibrocartilage | 83 | ||
| Elastic cartilage | 84 | ||
| Development and Growth of Cartilage | 84 | ||
| Bone | 84 | ||
| Macroscopic Anatomy of Bone | 84 | ||
| Microstructure of Bone | 86 | ||
| Bone organic matrix | 86 | ||
| Bone minerals | 86 | ||
| Osteoblasts | 86 | ||
| Osteocytes | 87 | ||
| Osteoclasts | 87 | ||
| Woven and lamellar bone | 88 | ||
| Cortical bone | 88 | ||
| Trabecular bone | 89 | ||
| Periosteum, endosteum and bone marrow | 89 | ||
| Neurovascular Supply of Bone | 89 | ||
| Vascular supply | 89 | ||
| Innervation | 91 | ||
| Development and Growth of Bone | 91 | ||
| Intramembranous ossification | 91 | ||
| Endochondral ossification | 92 | ||
| Postnatal growth and maintenance of bone | 94 | ||
| Bone remodelling | 95 | ||
| Growth of individual bones | 95 | ||
| Joints | 96 | ||
| Fibrous Joints | 96 | ||
| Suture | 96 | ||
| Gomphosis | 96 | ||
| Syndesmosis | 96 | ||
| Cartilaginous Joints | 96 | ||
| Primary cartilaginous joints | 97 | ||
| Secondary cartilaginous joints | 97 | ||
| Synovial Joints | 97 | ||
| Articular surfaces | 98 | ||
| Fibrous capsule | 99 | ||
| Synovial membrane | 99 | ||
| Synovial fluid | 100 | ||
| Intra-articular menisci, discs and fat pads | 100 | ||
| Vascular supply and lymphatic drainage | 100 | ||
| Innervation | 100 | ||
| Classification | 100 | ||
| Plane joints | 101 | ||
| Hinge joints | 101 | ||
| Pivot joints | 101 | ||
| Ellipsoid joints | 101 | ||
| Saddle joints | 101 | ||
| Ball-and-socket joints | 101 | ||
| Factors influencing movement | 101 | ||
| Complexity of form | 101 | ||
| Degrees of freedom | 102 | ||
| Types of joint movement | 102 | ||
| Translation | 102 | ||
| Flexion | 102 | ||
| Abduction and adduction | 102 | ||
| Axial rotation | 102 | ||
| Circumduction | 103 | ||
| Development of Joints | 103 | ||
| Muscle | 103 | ||
| Classification of Muscle | 103 | ||
| Skeletal Muscle | 103 | ||
| Microstructure of Skeletal Muscle | 103 | ||
| Sarcomeres | 103 | ||
| Muscle proteins | 104 | ||
| Other sarcoplasmic structures | 106 | ||
| Connective tissues of muscle | 107 | ||
| Neurovascular Supply of Muscle | 107 | ||
| Vascular supply and lymphatic drainage | 107 | ||
| Innervation | 107 | ||
| Muscle Contraction | 108 | ||
| Slow-twitch versus fast-twitch fibres | 108 | ||
| Fibre type transformation | 109 | ||
| Development and Growth of Skeletal Muscle | 109 | ||
| Myogenic determination factors | 109 | ||
| Formation of muscle fibres | 110 | ||
| Development of fibre types | 111 | ||
| Growth and regulation of fibre length | 111 | ||
| Satellite cells and muscle repair | 111 | ||
| Regulation of muscle mass | 112 | ||
| Form and Function of Skeletal Muscle | 112 | ||
| Fibre architecture | 112 | ||
| Direction of force | 113 | ||
| Force versus range of contraction | 113 | ||
| Force, strength and power | 113 | ||
| Actions of muscles | 113 | ||
| Tendons and Ligaments | 114 | ||
| Tendons | 114 | ||
| Gross structure and function | 114 | ||
| Tendon attachments | 115 | ||
| Ligaments | 115 | ||
| Biomechanics | 115 | ||
| Mechanical Concepts | 116 | ||
| Forces, moments and torques | 116 | ||
| Mechanical properties of structures | 116 | ||
| Properties of materials | 116 | ||
| Energy and shock absorption | 117 | ||
| Liquids | 117 | ||
| Viscoelasticity | 117 | ||
| Material Properties of Skeletal Tissues | 117 | ||
| Bone | 117 | ||
| Tendon, ligament and fascia | 118 | ||
| Hyaline cartilage | 118 | ||
| Fibrocartilage and elastic cartilage | 118 | ||
| Mechanical Properties of Skeletal Structures | 118 | ||
| Long bones | 118 | ||
| Synovial joints | 119 | ||
| Intervertebral discs | 119 | ||
| Muscles and Lever Systems | 119 | ||
| Collagenous architecture of muscle | 119 | ||
| Internal muscle forces | 119 | ||
| Muscle lever systems | 120 | ||
| Movements | 120 | ||
| Movements of bones | 120 | ||
| Movements at articular surfaces | 120 | ||
| Centre of rotation | 121 | ||
| Coupled movements | 121 | ||
| Mechanobiology | 122 | ||
| Adaptive remodelling | 122 | ||
| Mechanotransduction | 122 | ||
| Degeneration, injury and frustrated repair | 122 | ||
| Key References | 122 | ||
| References | 122.e1 | ||
| 6 Smooth muscle and the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems | 123 | ||
| Smooth Muscle | 123 | ||
| Microstructure of Smooth Muscle | 123 | ||
| Neurovascular Supply of Smooth Muscle | 125 | ||
| Vascular supply | 125 | ||
| Innervation | 125 | ||
| Structural Basis of Contraction | 125 | ||
| Excitation–contraction coupling in smooth muscle | 126 | ||
| Regulation of smooth muscle intracellular calcium | 126 | ||
| Origin of Smooth Muscle | 126 | ||
| Smooth Muscle Remodelling in Disease | 126 | ||
| Cardiovascular and Lymphatic Systems | 127 | ||
| General Organization | 127 | ||
| General features of vessel walls | 127 | ||
| Large elastic arteries | 127 | ||
| Muscular arteries | 128 | ||
| Arterioles | 128 | ||
| Capillaries | 128 | ||
| Sinusoids | 129 | ||
| Venules | 130 | ||
| Fluid exchange in the microvasculature | 130 | ||
| Inflammation and endothelial permeability | 130 | ||
| Veins | 130 | ||
| Vascular Shunts and Anastomoses | 131 | ||
| Arteriovenous shunts and anastomoses | 131 | ||
| Arterial anastomoses | 132 | ||
| The angiosome concept and vascular territories | 132 | ||
| Microstructure of Blood Vessels | 132 | ||
| Intima | 132 | ||
| Endothelium | 132 | ||
| Von Willebrand factor | 132 | ||
| Endothelial cell–leukocyte interactions | 132 | ||
| Cell adhesion molecules | 133 | ||
| Subendothelial connective tissue | 133 | ||
| Media | 133 | ||
| Smooth muscle | 134 | ||
| Collagen and elastin | 134 | ||
| Adventitia | 134 | ||
| Vasa vasorum | 134 | ||
| Nervi vasorum | 134 | ||
| Pericytes | 135 | ||
| Cerebral vessels | 135 | ||
| Lymphatic Vessels | 135 | ||
| Lymphoedema | 136 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle | 136 | ||
| Microstructure of Cardiac Muscle | 136 | ||
| Intercalated discs | 137 | ||
| Contractile protein isoforms of cardiac muscle | 138 | ||
| Endocardium | 138 | ||
| Neurovascular Supply of Cardiac Muscle | 138 | ||
| Vascular supply | 138 | ||
| Innervation | 138 | ||
| Excitation–Contraction Coupling in Cardiac Muscle | 138 | ||
| Dysfunction of cardiac muscle: excitation–contraction coupling in disease | 139 | ||
| Origin of Cardiac Muscle | 139 | ||
| Cardiac Plasticity and Regeneration of Cardiac Muscle | 139 | ||
| Key References | 139 | ||
| References | 140.e1 | ||
| 7 Skin and its appendages | 141 | ||
| Types and Functions of Skin | 141 | ||
| Classification of Skin | 141 | ||
| Microstructure of Skin and Skin Appendages | 141 | ||
| Epidermis | 141 | ||
| Keratinocytes | 142 | ||
| Basal layer | 142 | ||
| Prickle cell layer | 144 | ||
| Granular layer | 144 | ||
| Clear layer | 144 | ||
| Cornified layer | 144 | ||
| Keratins | 144 | ||
| Epidermal lipids | 145 | ||
| Melanocytes | 145 | ||
| Langerhans cells | 146 | ||
| Merkel cells | 146 | ||
| Dermis | 146 | ||
| Layers of the dermis | 147 | ||
| Papillary layer | 147 | ||
| Reticular layer | 147 | ||
| Hypodermis | 147 | ||
| Pilosebaceous Unit | 147 | ||
| Hairs | 147 | ||
| Hair follicle | 147 | ||
| Anagen follicle | 148 | ||
| Hair bulb | 148 | ||
| Structure of hair and its sheaths | 148 | ||
| Hair cycle and growth of hair | 149 | ||
| Sebaceous glands | 149 | ||
| Apocrine glands | 150 | ||
| Arrector pili muscles | 150 | ||
| Sweat Glands | 150 | ||
| Nail Apparatus | 151 | ||
| Nail plate | 151 | ||
| Nail folds | 151 | ||
| Nail matrix | 152 | ||
| Nail bed | 152 | ||
| Hyponychium | 152 | ||
| Nail growth | 152 | ||
| Vascular Supply, Lymphatic Drainage and Innervation | 152 | ||
| Vascular Supply and Lymphatic Drainage | 152 | ||
| Innervation | 153 | ||
| Development of Skin and Skin Appendages | 154 | ||
| Epidermis and Appendages | 154 | ||
| General (interfollicular) epidermis | 154 | ||
| Pilosebaceous unit | 155 | ||
| Eccrine sweat glands | 155 | ||
| Epidermal ridges | 155 | ||
| Nails | 155 | ||
| Dermis | 155 | ||
| Vascular supply and lymphatic drainage | 155 | ||
| Innervation | 155 | ||
| Epithelial–Mesenchymal Interactions in Developing Skin | 156 | ||
| Neonatal Growth | 156 | ||
| Natural Skin Creases and Wrinkles | 156 | ||
| Skin Lines | 156 | ||
| Surface pattern lines, tension lines and skin creases | 156 | ||
| Wrinkle lines | 156 | ||
| Flexure (joint) lines | 156 | ||
| Papillary ridges | 157 | ||
| Lines detectable after manipulation or incision | 157 | ||
| Relaxed skin tension lines | 157 | ||
| Lines of Langer and Kraissl | 157 | ||
| Blaschko’s lines | 157 | ||
| Age-Related Skin Changes | 158 | ||
| Intrinsic ageing | 158 | ||
| Photoageing | 158 | ||
| Cutaneous Wound Healing and Scarring | 158 | ||
| Haemostasis | 158 | ||
| Inflammation | 158 | ||
| Proliferation | 158 | ||
| Re-epithelialization | 158 | ||
| Granulation tissue formation | 158 | ||
| Remodelling | 159 | ||
| Wound contraction | 159 | ||
| Scarless Wound Healing | 159 | ||
| Skin Grafts and Flaps | 160 | ||
| Grafts | 160 | ||
| Flaps | 160 | ||
| Skin Stem Cells | 160 | ||
| Key References | 160 | ||
| References | 161.e1 | ||
| Commentaries | e10 | ||
| Commentary 1.1 Fluorescence microscopy in cell biology today | e10 | ||
| References | e11 | ||
| Commentary 1.2 Stem cells in regenerative medicine | e13 | ||
| Introduction | e13 | ||
| What are stem cells? | e13 | ||
| Types of stem cell | e13 | ||
| Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) | e13 | ||
| Amniotic fluid stem cells (AFSCs) | e13 | ||
| Umbilical cord stem cells | e13 | ||
| Adult stem cells | e13 | ||
| Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) | e13 | ||
| Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) | e14 | ||
| Somatic cell reprogramming – stimulus-triggered acquisition of pluripotency (STAP): fact or fantasy? | e14 | ||
| Regenerative medicine through tissue engineering | e14 | ||
| Using stem cells to replace organs and tissues through blastocyst complementation | e15 | ||
| Conclusion | e15 | ||
| References | e15 | ||
| Commentary 1.3 Merkel cells | e17 | ||
| Acknowledgements | e18 | ||
| References | e18 | ||
| Commentary 1.4 Metaplasia | e19 | ||
| References | e20 | ||
| Commentary 1.5 Electron microscopy in the twenty-first century | e21 | ||
| Introduction | e21 | ||
| EM in pathology | e21 | ||
| Limitations of traditional processing techniques and current protocols | e21 | ||
| Advances in instrumentation and detector technology | e22 | ||
| Overcoming the challenges of contrast in the transmission electron microscope | e23 | ||
| Advances in the scanning electron microscope | e23 | ||
| References | e24 | ||
| Commentary 1.6 The reaction of peripheral nerves to injury | e26 | ||
| Neurapraxia/conduction block | e26 | ||
| Transient ischaemia | e26 | ||
| Slowly progressing ischaemia | e26 | ||
| Prolonged conduction block associated with focal demyelination | e26 | ||
| Prolonged conduction block of war wounds | e27 | ||
| Degenerative lesions | e27 | ||
| Deepening of a lesion in a nerve that has not been divided | e27 | ||
| Wallerian degeneration | e27 | ||
| Neuronal cell body and proximal stump | e28 | ||
| Tip of proximal stump | e28 | ||
| Distal stump | e28 | ||
| The special case of preganglionic injury | e28 | ||
| Regeneration and recovery of function | e29 | ||
| Regeneration of end organs | e29 | ||
| Plasticity in the central nervous system | e29 | ||
| Case report | e30 | ||
| Laboratory and clinical studies | e30 | ||
| References | e31 | ||
| 2 Embryogenesis | 162 | ||
| 8 Preimplantation development | 163 | ||
| Staging of Embryos | 163 | ||
| Fertilization | 163 | ||
| In vitro fertilization | 164 | ||
| Preimplantation Development | 164 | ||
| Cleavage | 164 | ||
| Blastocyst | 167 | ||
| Attachment to the uterine wall | 167 | ||
| Ectopic implantation | 168 | ||
| Twinning | 168 | ||
| Formation of Extraembryonic Tissues | 168 | ||
| Epiblast and amniotic cavity | 169 | ||
| Hypoblast and yolk sac | 169 | ||
| Extraembryonic mesoblast | 169 | ||
| Key References | 170 | ||
| References | 170.e1 | ||
| 9 Implantation and placentation | 171 | ||
| Implantation | 171 | ||
| Development of the Placenta | 172 | ||
| Growth of the placenta | 173 | ||
| Chorionic plate | 174 | ||
| Basal plate | 174 | ||
| Intervillous space | 175 | ||
| Structure of a placental villus | 175 | ||
| Transport across placental villi | 177 | ||
| Fetal Membranes | 177 | ||
| Chorion | 177 | ||
| Yolk sac | 177 | ||
| Allantois | 178 | ||
| Amnion (chorio-amnion) | 178 | ||
| Prenatal changes to the chorio-amnion | 178 | ||
| Amniotic Fluid | 179 | ||
| Umbilical Cord | 179 | ||
| Key References | 180 | ||
| References | 180.e1 | ||
| 10 Cell populations at gastrulation | 181 | ||
| Conceptus with a Bilaminar Embryonic Disc | 181 | ||
| Primitive streak and node | 181 | ||
| Position and time of ingression through the primitive streak | 182 | ||
| Prechordal plate | 182 | ||
| Notochord | 182 | ||
| Caudal eminence | 182 | ||
| Embryonic endoderm | 183 | ||
| Intraembryonic mesoblast (mesenchyme) | 183 | ||
| Embryonic ectoderm | 183 | ||
| Primordial germ cells | 184 | ||
| Trilaminar Disc | 184 | ||
| Folding of the Embryo | 184 | ||
| Formation of the Intraembryonic Coelom | 185 | ||
| Embryonic Cell Populations at Gastrulation | 186 | ||
| Epithelia | 186 | ||
| Mesenchyme | 187 | ||
| Extracellular matrix | 188 | ||
| Transition between epithelial and mesenchyme states | 188 | ||
| Key References | 188 | ||
| References | 188.e1 | ||
| 11 Embryonic induction and cell division | 189 | ||
| Embryonic Induction and Cell Division | 189 | ||
| Transiently amplifying cells | 189 | ||
| Progenitor cells | 189 | ||
| Stem cells | 189 | ||
| Terminally differentiated cells | 189 | ||
| Tissue interactions | 190 | ||
| Signalling between embryonic cells and tissues | 190 | ||
| Morphogenesis and Pattern Formation | 191 | ||
| Genes in development | 192 | ||
| Experimental approaches to embryology | 192 | ||
| Key References | 192 | ||
| References | 192.e1 | ||
| 12 Cell populations at the start of organogenesis | 193 | ||
| Specification of the Body Axes and the Body Plan | 193 | ||
| Embryonic Cell Populations at the Start of Organogenesis | 193 | ||
| Epithelial populations in the embryo | 194 | ||
| Surface ectoderm | 194 | ||
| Ectodermal ring and ectodermal placodes | 194 | ||
| Neural ectoderm | 194 | ||
| Notochord | 194 | ||
| Endoderm | 195 | ||
| Coelomic epithelium | 195 | ||
| Somites | 195 | ||
| Mesenchymal populations in the embryo | 195 | ||
| Axial mesenchyme | 197 | ||
| Paraxial mesenchyme | 197 | ||
| Septum transversum | 197 | ||
| Neural crest | 197 | ||
| Head neural crest | 197 | ||
| Trunk neural crest | 197 | ||
| Lateral plate | 197 | ||
| Somatopleuric mesenchyme | 197 | ||
| Splanchnopleuric mesenchyme | 199 | ||
| Intermediate mesenchyme | 199 | ||
| Angioblastic mesenchyme | 199 | ||
| Key References | 199 | ||
| References | 199.e1 | ||
| 13 Early embryonic circulation | 200 | ||
| Angiogenesis | 200 | ||
| Vascular anomalies | 201 | ||
| Embryonic Arteries | 202 | ||
| Somatic arteries | 202 | ||
| Early umbilical arteries | 202 | ||
| Lateral splanchnic arteries | 202 | ||
| Ventral splanchnic arteries | 202 | ||
| Embryonic Veins | 202 | ||
| Vitelline veins | 202 | ||
| Early umbilical veins | 202 | ||
| Cardinal veins and somatic venous complexes | 203 | ||
| Subcardinal veins | 203 | ||
| Supracardinal veins | 203 | ||
| Azygos line veins | 203 | ||
| Subcentral veins | 204 | ||
| Precostal or lumbocostal venous line | 204 | ||
| Further development of the somatic veins | 204 | ||
| Lymphatic Vessels | 204 | ||
| Lymph Nodes and Lymphoid Tissues | 204 | ||
| References | 204.e2 | ||
| 14 Pre- and postnatal development | 205 | ||
| Prenatal Stages | 205 | ||
| Embryonic staging | 205 | ||
| Fetal staging | 205 | ||
| Obstetric staging | 205 | ||
| Ultrasound staging | 206 | ||
| First trimester scan | 206 | ||
| Second trimester scan | 206 | ||
| Magnetic resonance imaging | 209 | ||
| Fetal development | 209 | ||
| Fetal surgery | 209 | ||
| Growth in Utero | 209 | ||
| Transition to extrauterine life | 210 | ||
| Neonate | 210 | ||
| Neonatal measurements and period of time in utero | 210 | ||
| Growth in Infancy and Childhood | 210 | ||
| Adolescent Growth Spurt and Adult Size | 214 | ||
| Integration of Types of Growth during Development and Life | 216 | ||
| Key References | 217 | ||
| References | 217.e1 | ||
| 15 Development of the limbs | 218 | ||
| Limb Buds | 218 | ||
| Axes of Limbs | 218 | ||
| Apical ectodermal ridge | 219 | ||
| Zone of Polarizing Activity | 220 | ||
| Ectodermal Interaction | 221 | ||
| Molecular Basis of Cell–Cell Interactions | 221 | ||
| Development of Limb Tissues | 221 | ||
| Development of Bone and Connective Tissue in the Limb | 221 | ||
| Development of Joints in the Limb | 222 | ||
| Development of Muscle in the Limb | 222 | ||
| Development of Nerves in the Limb | 222 | ||
| Embryonic Movements | 223 | ||
| Fetal Movements | 223 | ||
| Vasculature of the Limb | 223 | ||
| Arteries | 223 | ||
| Veins | 223 | ||
| Key References | 224 | ||
| References | 224.e1 | ||
| Commentaries | e32 | ||
| Commentary 2.1 Human anatomy informatics | e32 | ||
| Introduction | e32 | ||
| Formalizations of human anatomy | e32 | ||
| Human informatics resources | e33 | ||
| Abnormal anatomy and dysmorphology | e34 | ||
| Prospects | e35 | ||
| References | e35 | ||
| Commentary 2.2 An evolutionary consideration of pharyngeal development | e37 | ||
| References | e38 | ||
| 3 Neuroanatomy | 225 | ||
| 16 Overview of the nervous system | 227 | ||
| Central Nervous System | 227 | ||
| Spinal Cord | 228 | ||
| Brain | 228 | ||
| Overview of Ascending Sensory Pathways | 229 | ||
| Overview of Descending Motor Pathways | 230 | ||
| Peripheral Nervous System | 231 | ||
| Spinal Nerves | 231 | ||
| Cranial Nerves | 231 | ||
| Autonomic Nervous System | 233 | ||
| Sympathetic Nervous System | 235 | ||
| Parasympathetic Nervous System | 235 | ||
| Enteric Nervous System and Intrinsic Neurones | 236 | ||
| Visceral Afferent Pathways | 236 | ||
| Paraganglia | 237 | ||
| Surface Anatomy | 237 | ||
| Cerebral sulci and lobes | 237 | ||
| Vertebral column, spinal cord and meninges | 237 | ||
| Dural venous sinuses | 237 | ||
| Middle meningeal artery | 237 | ||
| References | 237.e3 | ||
| 17 Development of the nervous system | 238 | ||
| Neurulation | 238 | ||
| Early Brain Regions | 238 | ||
| Early Cellular Arrangement of the Neural Tube | 240 | ||
| Failure of Neurulation | 241 | ||
| Neural Crest | 241 | ||
| Ectodermal Placodes | 243 | ||
| Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis Cerebri) | 245 | ||
| Neuroglia | 245 | ||
| Mechanisms of Neural Development | 245 | ||
| Histogenesis of the Neural Tube | 245 | ||
| Lineage and Growth in the Nervous System | 246 | ||
| Growth cones | 246 | ||
| Dendritic trees and synaptogenesis | 247 | ||
| Neurotrophins | 247 | ||
| Induction and Patterning of the Brain and Spinal Cord | 247 | ||
| Segmentation in the neural tube | 248 | ||
| Peripheral Nervous System | 248 | ||
| Somatic Nerves | 248 | ||
| Spinal nerves | 248 | ||
| Cranial nerves | 249 | ||
| Autonomic Nervous System | 250 | ||
| Parasympathetic ganglia | 251 | ||
| Sympathetic ganglia | 251 | ||
| Enteric nervous system | 251 | ||
| Chromaffin cells | 251 | ||
| Central Nervous System | 252 | ||
| Spinal Cord | 252 | ||
| Anterior (ventral) grey column | 252 | ||
| Lateral grey column | 252 | ||
| Posterior (dorsal) grey column | 252 | ||
| Maturation of the spinal cord | 252 | ||
| Ascent of conus medullaris | 252 | ||
| Brain | 253 | ||
| Rhombencephalon | 253 | ||
| Cells of the basal plate (ventrolateral lamina) | 253 | ||
| Cell columns of the alar plate (dorsolateral lamina) | 253 | ||
| Myelencephalon | 254 | ||
| Metencephalon | 254 | ||
| Fourth ventricle and choroid plexus | 254 | ||
| Cerebellum | 254 | ||
| Cellular development of the cerebellum | 254 | ||
| Mesencephalon | 255 | ||
| Prosencephalon | 256 | ||
| Diencephalon | 257 | ||
| Third ventricle and choroid plexus | 258 | ||
| Telencephalon | 259 | ||
| Cerebral hemispheres | 259 | ||
| Olfactory bulb | 259 | ||
| Lateral ventricles and choroid plexus | 259 | ||
| Basal nuclei | 260 | ||
| Fusion of diencephalic and telencephalic walls | 261 | ||
| Formation of the insula | 261 | ||
| Olfactory nerve, limbic lobe and hippocampus | 261 | ||
| Projection fibres, internal capsule | 261 | ||
| Formation of gyri and sulci | 261 | ||
| Development of commissures | 262 | ||
| Cellular development of the cerebral cortex | 262 | ||
| Neonatal brain and reflexes | 264 | ||
| Myelination | 264 | ||
| Reflexes present at birth | 265 | ||
| Postnatal brain maturation | 266 | ||
| Meninges | 266 | ||
| Vascular Supply | 266 | ||
| Arteries | 266 | ||
| Cranial arteries | 266 | ||
| Leptomeningeal arteries | 267 | ||
| Vascularization of the brain | 267 | ||
| Vessels of the ventricular zone (germinal matrix) | 268 | ||
| Blood–brain barrier | 269 | ||
| Veins | 269 | ||
| Cerebral veins | 269 | ||
| Veins of the head | 269 | ||
| Key References | 270 | ||
| References | 270.e1 | ||
| 18 Ventricular system and subarachnoid space | 271 | ||
| Topography and Relations of the Ventricular System | 271 | ||
| Lateral Ventricle | 271 | ||
| Third Ventricle | 272 | ||
| Cerebral Aqueduct | 273 | ||
| Fourth Ventricle | 273 | ||
| Circumventricular Organs | 275 | ||
| Choroid Plexus and Cerebrospinal Fluid | 276 | ||
| Choroid Plexus | 276 | ||
| Cerebrospinal Fluid | 276 | ||
| Subarachnoid Space and Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid | 276 | ||
| Subarachnoid Space | 276 | ||
| Circulation of Cerebrospinal Fluid | 278 | ||
| Arachnoid villi and granulations | 278 | ||
| Hydrocephalus | 278 | ||
| Pia Mater | 278 | ||
| Key References | 279 | ||
| References | 279.e1 | ||
| 19 Vascular supply and drainage of the brain | 280 | ||
| Arteries of the Brain | 280 | ||
| Internal Carotid Artery | 280 | ||
| Petrous part | 280 | ||
| Cavernous part | 280 | ||
| Intracranial part | 281 | ||
| Anterior cerebral artery | 281 | ||
| Middle cerebral artery | 283 | ||
| Vertebral Artery | 283 | ||
| Basilar Artery | 284 | ||
| Posterior cerebral artery | 284 | ||
| Circulus Arteriosus | 285 | ||
| Central or Perforating Arteries | 285 | ||
| Regional Arteries of the Brain | 285 | ||
| Brainstem | 285 | ||
| Cerebellum | 285 | ||
| Optic chiasma, tract and radiation | 285 | ||
| Diencephalon | 285 | ||
| Basal ganglia | 285 | ||
| Internal capsule | 286 | ||
| Cerebral cortex | 286 | ||
| Cerebral Blood Flow | 286 | ||
| Ischaemic stroke | 286 | ||
| Watershed areas | 287 | ||
| Cerebral aneurysms | 287 | ||
| Subarachnoid haemorrhage | 287 | ||
| Arteriovenous malformations | 287 | ||
| Veins of the Brain | 288 | ||
| Veins of the Posterior Fossa | 288 | ||
| Veins of the Cerebral Hemisphere | 288 | ||
| Intracranial venosinus thrombosis | 289 | ||
| Key References | 290 | ||
| References | 290.e1 | ||
| 20 Spinal cord: | 291 | ||
| External Features and Relations | 291 | ||
| Internal Organization | 291 | ||
| Spinal Grey Matter | 291 | ||
| Neuronal cell groups of the spinal cord | 292 | ||
| Dorsal horn | 294 | ||
| Pain pathways | 294 | ||
| Lateral horn | 295 | ||
| Ventral horn | 295 | ||
| Spinal White Matter | 296 | ||
| Ascending pathways | 296 | ||
| Dorsal columns | 296 | ||
| Spinocerebellar tracts | 297 | ||
| Spinothalamic tracts | 299 | ||
| Neurones of the spinothalamic tracts | 299 | ||
| Spinoreticular pathway | 300 | ||
| Spinocervicothalamic pathway | 301 | ||
| Spinomesencephalic pathway | 301 | ||
| Spino-olivary tract | 301 | ||
| Descending tracts | 301 | ||
| Corticospinal and corticonuclear tracts | 301 | ||
| Rubrospinal tract | 303 | ||
| Tectospinal tract | 303 | ||
| Vestibulospinal tracts | 303 | ||
| Reticulospinal tracts | 303 | ||
| Interstitiospinal tract | 304 | ||
| Solitariospinal tract | 304 | ||
| Hypothalamospinal fibres | 304 | ||
| Monoaminergic spinal pathways | 304 | ||
| Propriospinal pathways | 304 | ||
| The tract of Lissauer | 305 | ||
| Spinal Reflexes | 305 | ||
| Muscle stretch reflex | 305 | ||
| Gamma reflex | 305 | ||
| Flexor reflex and crossed extensor reflex | 305 | ||
| Spinal Cord Lesions | 306 | ||
| Key References | 308 | ||
| References | 308.e1 | ||
| 21 Brainstem | 309 | ||
| The Brainstem in a Clinical Context | 309 | ||
| Overview of Cranial Nerves and Cranial Nerve Nuclei | 310 | ||
| Medulla Oblongata | 311 | ||
| External Features and Relations | 311 | ||
| Internal Organization | 311 | ||
| Transverse section of the medulla at the level of the motor (pyramidal) decussation | 311 | ||
| Transverse section of the medulla at the level of the sensory decussation of the dorsal column–medial lemniscus system | 313 | ||
| Transverse section of the medulla at the caudal end of the fourth ventricle | 313 | ||
| Corticospinal (pyramidal) tract | 314 | ||
| Dorsal column nuclei | 314 | ||
| Sensory nucleus of the trigeminal nerve | 315 | ||
| Vagal nucleus | 316 | ||
| Hypoglossal nucleus | 316 | ||
| Inferior olivary nucleus | 316 | ||
| Nucleus solitarius | 317 | ||
| Nucleus ambiguus | 317 | ||
| Swallowing and gag reflexes | 317 | ||
| Cough and sneeze reflexes | 317 | ||
| Pons | 317 | ||
| External Features and Relations | 317 | ||
| Internal Organization | 317 | ||
| Transverse sections of the pons | 317 | ||
| Basilar pons | 317 | ||
| Pontine tegmentum | 318 | ||
| Cochlear nuclei | 319 | ||
| Vestibular nuclei | 319 | ||
| Abducens nucleus | 320 | ||
| Facial nucleus | 320 | ||
| Corneal and blink reflexes | 320 | ||
| Trigeminal sensory nucleus | 320 | ||
| Jaw jerk reflex | 321 | ||
| Trigeminal motor nucleus | 321 | ||
| Tensor tympani and stapedius reflex | 321 | ||
| Salivatory nuclei | 321 | ||
| Midbrain | 321 | ||
| External Features and Relations | 321 | ||
| Internal Organization | 322 | ||
| Transverse sections of the midbrain | 322 | ||
| Crus cerebri | 322 | ||
| Substantia nigra | 322 | ||
| Mesencephalic tegmentum | 324 | ||
| Red nucleus | 324 | ||
| Oculomotor nucleus | 324 | ||
| Trochlear nucleus | 325 | ||
| Medial longitudinal fasciculus | 325 | ||
| Tectum | 325 | ||
| Inferior colliculus | 325 | ||
| Superior colliculus | 325 | ||
| Pretectal nucleus | 326 | ||
| Brainstem Reticular Formation | 326 | ||
| Median Column of Reticular Nuclei | 326 | ||
| Medial Column of Reticular Nuclei | 327 | ||
| Lateral Column of Reticular Nuclei | 327 | ||
| Pedunculopontine nucleus | 328 | ||
| Brainstem Lesions | 328 | ||
| General Concepts | 328 | ||
| Herniation syndromes | 329 | ||
| Key References | 329 | ||
| References | 330.e1 | ||
| 22 Cerebellum | 331 | ||
| External Features and Relations | 331 | ||
| Cerebellar Peduncles | 335 | ||
| Internal Organization | 335 | ||
| Cerebellar Cortex | 335 | ||
| Purkinje cells | 335 | ||
| Cortical interneurones | 335 | ||
| Cerebellar Nuclei | 336 | ||
| Cerebellar Circuitry | 337 | ||
| The Modular Organization of the Cerebellum and the Corticonuclear and Olivocerebellar Projections | 338 | ||
| Connections of the Cerebellar Nuclei: Reciprocal Organization of the Cortico-Olivary System | 340 | ||
| Afferent Mossy Fibre Connections of the Cerebellum | 343 | ||
| Spinocerebellar, trigeminocerebellar, reticulocerebellar and vestibulocerebellar fibres | 344 | ||
| Corticopontocerebellar Projection | 345 | ||
| ‘Oculomotor Cerebellum’ | 346 | ||
| Vestibulo-ocular reflex | 347 | ||
| Neuroimaging and the Functional Divisions of the Cerebellum | 347 | ||
| Key References | 349 | ||
| References | 349.e1 | ||
| 23 Diencephalon | 350 | ||
| Thalamus | 350 | ||
| Anterior Thalamic Nuclei | 351 | ||
| Medial Thalamic Nuclei | 351 | ||
| Lateral Thalamic Nuclei | 352 | ||
| Ventral anterior nucleus | 352 | ||
| Ventral lateral nucleus | 352 | ||
| Ventral posterior nucleus | 352 | ||
| Medial geniculate nucleus | 353 | ||
| Lateral geniculate nucleus | 353 | ||
| Lateral dorsal nucleus | 354 | ||
| Lateral posterior nucleus | 354 | ||
| Pulvinar | 354 | ||
| Intralaminar Nuclei | 355 | ||
| Midline Nuclei | 355 | ||
| Reticular Nucleus | 355 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 355 | ||
| Hypothalamic Nuclei | 356 | ||
| Suprachiasmatic nucleus | 356 | ||
| Supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei | 358 | ||
| Connections of the Hypothalamus | 359 | ||
| Afferent connections | 359 | ||
| Efferent connections | 359 | ||
| Pituitary Gland | 359 | ||
| Neurohypophysis | 360 | ||
| Adenohypophysis | 360 | ||
| Arteries and veins of the pituitary gland | 360 | ||
| Subthalamus | 361 | ||
| Subthalamic Nucleus | 362 | ||
| Zona Incerta and Fields of Forel | 362 | ||
| Epithalamus | 362 | ||
| Habenular Nuclei and Stria Medullaris Thalami | 362 | ||
| Posterior Commissure | 362 | ||
| Pineal Gland | 362 | ||
| Key References | 363 | ||
| References | 363.e1 | ||
| 24 Basal ganglia | 364 | ||
| Corpus Striatum | 364 | ||
| Lentiform Complex | 364 | ||
| Striatum | 365 | ||
| Caudate Nucleus | 365 | ||
| Ventral Striatum | 366 | ||
| Striatal Connectivity | 366 | ||
| Globus Pallidus | 369 | ||
| Subthalamic Nucleus | 369 | ||
| Substantia Nigra | 369 | ||
| Pedunculopontine Nucleus | 370 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Basal Ganglia Disorders | 370 | ||
| Key References | 372 | ||
| References | 372.e1 | ||
| 25 Cerebral hemispheres | 373 | ||
| Cerebral Hemisphere Surfaces, Sulci and Gyri | 373 | ||
| Microstructure of the Cortex | 374 | ||
| Laminar Organization | 374 | ||
| Neocortical Structure | 374 | ||
| Cortical Lamination and Cortical Connections | 374 | ||
| Columns and Modules | 375 | ||
| Cerebral Lobes | 375 | ||
| Frontal Lobe | 375 | ||
| Frontal lobe sulci and gyri | 376 | ||
| Frontal lobe internal structure and connectivity | 376 | ||
| Primary motor cortex | 376 | ||
| Corticospinal tract | 377 | ||
| Premotor cortex | 378 | ||
| Frontal eye field | 379 | ||
| Supplementary motor cortex | 379 | ||
| Prefrontal cortex | 379 | ||
| Parietal Lobe | 380 | ||
| Parietal lobe sulci and gyri | 380 | ||
| Parietal lobe internal structure and connectivity | 380 | ||
| Somatosensory cortex | 380 | ||
| Superior and inferior parietal lobules | 380 | ||
| Occipital Lobe | 381 | ||
| Occipital lobe sulci and gyri | 381 | ||
| Occipital lobe internal structure and connectivity | 381 | ||
| Temporal Lobe | 382 | ||
| Temporal lobe sulci and gyri | 382 | ||
| Temporal lobe internal structure and connectivity | 382 | ||
| Insular Lobe | 383 | ||
| Insular lobe sulci and gyri | 384 | ||
| Insular lobe internal structure and connectivity | 384 | ||
| Limbic Lobe | 384 | ||
| Limbic lobe sulci and gyri | 384 | ||
| Uncus | 384 | ||
| Hippocampus | 385 | ||
| Limbic lobe internal structure and connectivity | 385 | ||
| Cingulate and parahippocampal cortex | 385 | ||
| Hippocampal cortex | 386 | ||
| Limbic System | 387 | ||
| Hippocampal formation | 387 | ||
| Subicular complex | 388 | ||
| Entorhinal cortex | 388 | ||
| Septum | 388 | ||
| Amygdala | 388 | ||
| Olfactory Pathways | 390 | ||
| Olfactory bulb | 390 | ||
| Olfactory tract and anterior perforated substance | 391 | ||
| White Matter of the Cerebral Hemispheres | 391 | ||
| Association Fibres | 391 | ||
| Superior longitudinal fasciculus | 391 | ||
| Inferior longitudinal fasciculus | 391 | ||
| Inferior fronto-occipital fasciculus | 392 | ||
| Uncinate fasciculus | 392 | ||
| Middle longitudinal fasciculus | 392 | ||
| Cingulum | 392 | ||
| Fornix | 392 | ||
| Temporoparietal fibre intersection area | 392 | ||
| Commissural Fibres | 393 | ||
| Corpus callosum | 393 | ||
| Anterior commissure | 393 | ||
| Hippocampal commissure | 394 | ||
| Posterior commissure | 394 | ||
| Habenular commissure | 394 | ||
| Projection Fibres | 394 | ||
| Internal capsule | 394 | ||
| Overview of Cortical Connectivity | 396 | ||
| The Temporal Stem and the Sagittal Stratum | 396 | ||
| Cerebral Central Core | 396 | ||
| Cerebral Asymmetry | 396 | ||
| Cognitive Functions | 397 | ||
| Key References | 398 | ||
| References | 398.e1 | ||
| Commentary | e39 | ||
| Commentary 3.1 The resting human brain and the predictive potential of the default mode network | e39 | ||
| References | e41 | ||
| 4 Head and Neck | 399 | ||
| 26 Head and neck: | 404 | ||
| Skin and Fascia | 404 | ||
| Face and Scalp | 404 | ||
| Neck | 404 | ||
| Bones and Joints | 404 | ||
| Skull and Mandible | 404 | ||
| Cervical Vertebrae | 404 | ||
| Hyoid Bone and Laryngeal Cartilages | 404 | ||
| Muscles | 404 | ||
| Vascular Supply and Lymphatic Drainage | 404 | ||
| Arteries | 404 | ||
| Carotid system | 406 | ||
| Subclavian artery | 406 | ||
| Veins | 406 | ||
| Lymphatic Drainage | 406 | ||
| Innervation | 407 | ||
| Cranial Nerves | 407 | ||
| Reflexes | 407 | ||
| Spinal Nerves | 407 | ||
| Parasympathetic Nerves | 407 | ||
| Ciliary ganglion | 408 | ||
| Submandibular ganglion | 408 | ||
| Pterygopalatine ganglion | 408 | ||
| Otic ganglion | 408 | ||
| Sympathetic Nerves | 409 | ||
| Surface Anatomy | 409 | ||
| Surface Anatomy of the Head | 409 | ||
| Skeletal landmarks | 409 | ||
| Calvaria | 409 | ||
| Mandible | 409 | ||
| Face | 409 | ||
| Soft tissues and viscera | 411 | ||
| Parotid gland | 411 | ||
| Pulses | 412 | ||
| Facial nerve | 412 | ||
| Dermatomes | 413 | ||
| Surface Anatomy of the Neck | 413 | ||
| Skeletal and cartilaginous landmarks | 413 | ||
| Soft tissues and viscera | 413 | ||
| Triangles and root of the neck | 413 | ||
| Anterior triangle | 413 | ||
| Posterior triangle | 414 | ||
| Course of vessels | 414 | ||
| Carotid arteries | 414 | ||
| Subclavian artery | 414 | ||
| Subclavian vein | 414 | ||
| Anterior jugular vein | 414 | ||
| External jugular vein | 414 | ||
| Internal jugular vein | 414 | ||
| Course of nerves | 414 | ||
| Accessory nerve | 414 | ||
| Cervical plexus | 414 | ||
| Brachial plexus | 415 | ||
| Cervical sympathetic ganglia | 415 | ||
| Key References | 415 | ||
| References | 415.e1 | ||
| Head and Neck | 416 | ||
| 27 External skull | 416 | ||
| Frontal (Anterior) View | 416 | ||
| Posterior View | 418 | ||
| Superior View | 418 | ||
| Lateral View | 419 | ||
| Inferior View | 421 | ||
| Anterior Part of Inferior Surface | 421 | ||
| Middle Part of Inferior Surface | 422 | ||
| Posterior Part of Inferior Surface | 422 | ||
| Lateral Part of Inferior Surface | 423 | ||
| Cranial Fossae (Anterior, Middle, Posterior) | 423 | ||
| Disarticulated Individual Bones | 423 | ||
| Joints | 423 | ||
| Neonatal, Paediatric and Senescent Anatomy | 423 | ||
| The Skull at Birth | 423 | ||
| Postnatal Growth | 423 | ||
| Growth of the calvaria | 424 | ||
| Growth of the cranial base | 425 | ||
| Growth of the facial skeleton | 425 | ||
| Sutural bones | 425 | ||
| Craniosynostosis | 425 | ||
| Congenital abnormalities affecting the skull | 426 | ||
| Identification From the Skull | 426 | ||
| Sex Determination | 426 | ||
| Age Determination | 426 | ||
| Determination of Ethnic Origin | 427 | ||
| Facial Approximation (Reconstruction) | 427 | ||
| Facial Superimposition | 427 | ||
| Key References | 428 | ||
| References | 428.e1 | ||
| 28 Intracranial region | 429 | ||
| Internal Surface of Calvaria | 429 | ||
| Cranial Fossae (Anterior, Middle, Posterior) | 429 | ||
| Anterior Cranial Fossa | 429 | ||
| Middle Cranial Fossa | 430 | ||
| Posterior Cranial Fossa | 431 | ||
| Meninges | 432 | ||
| Dura Mater | 432 | ||
| Extradural haematoma | 432 | ||
| Dural partitions | 432 | ||
| Falx cerebri | 432 | ||
| Falx cerebelli | 432 | ||
| Diaphragma sellae | 432 | ||
| Tentorium cerebelli | 433 | ||
| Transtentorial coning | 433 | ||
| Innervation of the cranial dura mater | 433 | ||
| Dural venous sinuses | 434 | ||
| Superior sagittal sinus | 435 | ||
| Inferior sagittal sinus | 436 | ||
| Straight sinus | 436 | ||
| Transverse sinus | 436 | ||
| Sigmoid sinus | 436 | ||
| Superior petrosal sinus | 437 | ||
| Inferior petrosal sinus | 437 | ||
| Cavernous sinus | 437 | ||
| Caroticocavernous sinus fistula and cavernous sinus thrombosis | 438 | ||
| Intercavernous sinuses | 438 | ||
| Basilar venous plexus | 438 | ||
| Sphenoparietal sinus | 438 | ||
| Occipital sinus | 439 | ||
| Marginal sinus | 439 | ||
| Emissary veins | 439 | ||
| Meningeal arteries and veins and diploic veins | 439 | ||
| Middle meningeal artery | 439 | ||
| Accessory meningeal artery | 439 | ||
| Meningeal veins | 439 | ||
| Middle meningeal vein (sinus) | 439 | ||
| Diploic veins | 440 | ||
| Sinus pericranii | 440 | ||
| Arachnoid and Pia Mater | 440 | ||
| Subdural haematoma | 441 | ||
| Key References | 441 | ||
| References | 441.e1 | ||
| 29 Neck | 442 | ||
| Skin | 442 | ||
| Cutaneous vascular supply and lymphatic drainage | 442 | ||
| Cutaneous innervation | 442 | ||
| Lesser occipital nerve | 442 | ||
| Great auricular nerve | 442 | ||
| Transverse cervical cutaneous nerve | 443 | ||
| Supraclavicular nerves | 443 | ||
| Bones, Joints and Cartilages | 443 | ||
| Hyoid Bone | 443 | ||
| Body | 443 | ||
| Greater cornua | 443 | ||
| Lesser cornua | 443 | ||
| Ossification | 443 | ||
| Joints | 443 | ||
| Triangles of the Neck | 443 | ||
| Anterior Triangle of the Neck | 444 | ||
| Digastric triangle | 444 | ||
| Submental triangle | 444 | ||
| Muscular triangle | 444 | ||
| Carotid triangle | 444 | ||
| Posterior Triangle of the Neck | 444 | ||
| Occipital triangle | 444 | ||
| Supraclavicular triangle | 445 | ||
| Cervical Fascia | 445 | ||
| Superficial Cervical Fascia | 445 | ||
| Deep Cervical Fascia | 445 | ||
| Investing layer of deep cervical fascia | 445 | ||
| Middle layer of deep cervical fascia | 445 | ||
| Deep layer of deep cervical fascia | 445 | ||
| Carotid sheath | 446 | ||
| Suprapleural membrane (Sibson’s fascia) | 446 | ||
| Tissue spaces and the spread of infection and injectate | 446 | ||
| Visceral space or compartment | 447 | ||
| Anterior visceral (pretracheal) space | 447 | ||
| Posterior visceral space | 447 | ||
| Prevertebral space | 447 | ||
| Danger space | 447 | ||
| Carotid space | 447 | ||
| Cellulitis in the neck | 447 | ||
| Muscles | 447 | ||
| Platysma | 448 | ||
| Commentaries | e43 | ||
| Commentary 4.1 Surgery of the skull base | e43 | ||
| Approaches to the anterior cranial base | e43 | ||
| Approaches to the middle cranial fossa | e43 | ||
| Approaches to the posterior cranial fossa | e43 | ||
| References | e44 | ||
| Commentary 4.2 The role of three-dimensional imaging in facial anatomical assessment | e45 | ||
| Acknowledgement | e46 | ||
| References | e46 | ||
| Commentary 4.3 Anatomy of facial ageing | e47 | ||
| Overview | e47 | ||
| Soft tissue organization of the face | e47 | ||
| Overview of facial ageing | e47 | ||
| Details of tissue layers | e47 | ||
| Tissue planes, sub-SMAS spaces and facial ageing | e47 | ||
| The facial skeleton and its ageing | e48 | ||
| Retaining ligaments and ageing | e48 | ||
| Subcutaneous layer and ageing | e49 | ||
| Sequence of appearance of facial ageing | e50 | ||
| References | e51 | ||
| 5 Back | 709 | ||
| 43 Back | 710 | ||
| Skin | 710 | ||
| Cutaneous Innervation and Dermatomes | 710 | ||
| Cutaneous Vascular Supply and Lymphatic Drainage | 710 | ||
| Fascial Layers | 710 | ||
| Thoracolumbar Fascia | 711 | ||
| Deep Cervical Fascia | 711 | ||
| Bones | 711 | ||
| Occipital Bone | 711 | ||
| Squamous part | 712 | ||
| Muscle attachments | 712 | ||
| Basilar part | 713 | ||
| Commentary | e52 | ||
| Commentary 5.1 Minimally invasive surgical corridors to the lumbar spine | e52 | ||
| References | e53 | ||
| 6 Pectoral Girdle and Upper Limb | 774 | ||
| 46 Pectoral girdle and upper limb: | 776 | ||
| Bones and Joints | 776 | ||
| Skin and Fascia | 776 | ||
| Cutaneous innervation | 777 | ||
| Muscles | 777 | ||
| Vascular Supply and Lymphatic Drainage | 778 | ||
| ARTERIES | 778 | ||
| Pulses | 779 | ||
| VEINS | 779 | ||
| Cutaneous blood supply | 779 | ||
| Muscle perforators | 779 | ||
| Fasciocutaneous system | 779 | ||
| Direct cutaneous supply | 779 | ||
| Lymphatic Drainage | 780 | ||
| Superficial tissues | 780 | ||
| Deeper tissues | 780 | ||
| Innervation | 780 | ||
| Accessory nerve | 781 | ||
| Dorsal scapular nerve | 781 | ||
| Long thoracic nerve (nerve to serratus anterior) | 781 | ||
| Suprascapular nerve | 781 | ||
| Nerve to subclavius | 781 | ||
| Brachial plexus | 781 | ||
| Blood supply | 781 | ||
| Trunks of the brachial plexus | 781 | ||
| Divisions of the brachial plexus | 781 | ||
| Cords of the brachial plexus | 782 | ||
| Axillary (circumflex) nerve | 783 | ||
| Radial nerve | 783 | ||
| Median nerve | 783 | ||
| Ulnar nerve | 784 | ||
| Musculocutaneous nerve | 785 | ||
| Segmental innervation of the upper limb | 786 | ||
| Autonomic nerves | 786 | ||
| Clinical Diagnosis of Focal Nerve Lesions in the Upper Limb | 786 | ||
| Examination | 786.e3 | ||
| Local signs in closed injury | 786.e3 | ||
| Wound characteristics | 786.e3 | ||
| Sensation | 786.e3 | ||
| Examination of muscles | 786.e3 | ||
| Secondary examination | 786.e5 | ||
| Recognition of the level of a lesion and the depth of injury | 786.e5 | ||
| Posterior cord and radial nerve | 786.e5 | ||
| Lateral cord, musculocutaneous nerve and lateral root of the median nerve | 786.e7 | ||
| Medial cord, medial head of the median and ulnar nerves | 786.e7 | ||
| Median nerve | 786.e7 | ||
| Ulnar nerve | 786.e7 | ||
| Depth of a lesion | 786.e7 | ||
| Tinel’s sign | 786.e7 | ||
| Eliciting Tinel’s sign in closed lesions | 786.e7 | ||
| Acute Ischaemia and Compartment Syndromes in the Upper Limb | 786 | ||
| Ischaemia and acute compression within neurovascular fascial compartments | 786.e8 | ||
| Case report | 786.e8 | ||
| Surface Anatomy | 786 | ||
| Skeletal Landmarks | 786 | ||
| Musculotendinous Landmarks | 789 | ||
| Vessels, Pulses and Nerves | 791 | ||
| Arteries | 791 | ||
| Sites for arterial cannulation | 791 | ||
| Allen’s test | 791 | ||
| Veins | 791 | ||
| Venepuncture at the elbow | 791 | ||
| Lymph nodes | 791 | ||
| Nerves | 791 | ||
| Dermatomes | 792 | ||
| Myotomes | 792 | ||
| Reflexes | 792 | ||
| Biceps jerk (C5, 6) | 792 | ||
| Triceps jerk (C6–8) | 792 | ||
| Radial jerk (C7, 8) | 792 | ||
| Nerve blocks | 792 | ||
| Brachial plexus | 792 | ||
| Wrist | 793 | ||
| Digital nerves | 793 | ||
| References | 793.e1 | ||
| 47 Development of the pectoral girdle and upper limb | 794 | ||
| Pectoral Girdle Development | 794 | ||
| Upper Limb Development | 794 | ||
| Vessels | 794 | ||
| Arteries | 794 | ||
| Veins | 795 | ||
| Ultrasound Antenatal Imaging | 795 | ||
| Neonatal Upper Limb | 795 | ||
| Peripheral arterial puncture in the neonate | 795 | ||
| Developmental Anomalies of the Upper Limb | 796 | ||
| Limb Reduction Defects | 796 | ||
| Anomalies of the Digits | 796 | ||
| Key References | 796 | ||
| References | 796.e1 | ||
| 48 Shoulder girdle and arm | 797 | ||
| Skin and Soft Tissues | 797 | ||
| Skin | 797 | ||
| Cutaneous vascular supply | 797 | ||
| Cutaneous innervation | 797 | ||
| Soft Tissues | 798 | ||
| Deep fascia | 798 | ||
| Compartment syndrome of the arm | 799 | ||
| Fascia over deltoid | 799 | ||
| Pectoral and axillary fascia | 799 | ||
| Clavipectoral fascia | 799 | ||
| Subscapular fascia | 799 | ||
| Infraspinous fascia | 799 | ||
| Supraspinous fascia | 799 | ||
| Brachial fascia | 799 | ||
| Axillary neurovascular sheath | 799 | ||
| Spread of infection | 799 | ||
| Bones | 799 | ||
| Clavicle | 799 | ||
| Lateral two-fifths | 800 | ||
| Medial three-fifths | 800 | ||
| Sternal end | 800 | ||
| Ossification | 801 | ||
| Scapula | 801 | ||
| Costal surface | 801 | ||
| Dorsal surface | 802 | ||
| Superior border | 802 | ||
| Lateral border | 802 | ||
| Medial border | 803 | ||
| Scapular angles | 803 | ||
| Spine of the scapula | 803 | ||
| Acromion | 803 | ||
| Coracoid process | 803 | ||
| Scapular movements | 803 | ||
| Ossification | 804 | ||
| Ligaments | 804 | ||
| Coraco-acromial ligament | 804 | ||
| Superior transverse scapular (suprascapular) ligament | 804 | ||
| Inferior transverse scapular (spinoglenoid) ligament | 804 | ||
| Humerus | 804 | ||
| Proximal end | 806 | ||
| Head | 806 | ||
| Anatomical neck | 806 | ||
| Lesser tubercle | 806 | ||
| Greater tubercle | 806 | ||
| Shaft | 806 | ||
| Surfaces | 806 | ||
| Anterior border | 806 | ||
| Lateral border | 807 | ||
| Medial border | 807 | ||
| Fractures of the humeral shaft | 807 | ||
| Distal end | 807 | ||
| Ossification | 807 | ||
| Joints | 808 | ||
| Sternoclavicular Joint | 808 | ||
| Articulating surfaces | 808 | ||
| Fibrous capsule | 808 | ||
| Ligaments | 808 | ||
| Anterior sternoclavicular ligament | 808 | ||
| Posterior sternoclavicular ligament | 808 | ||
| Interclavicular ligament | 808 | ||
| Costoclavicular ligament | 808 | ||
| Articular disc | 808 | ||
| Vascular supply | 808 | ||
| Innervation | 808 | ||
| Factors maintaining stability | 808 | ||
| Movements | 808 | ||
| Acromioclavicular Joint | 809 | ||
| Articulating surfaces | 809 | ||
| Fibrous capsule | 809 | ||
| Ligaments | 809 | ||
| Acromioclavicular ligaments | 809 | ||
| Coracoclavicular ligament | 809 | ||
| Articular disc | 810 | ||
| Vascular supply | 810 | ||
| Innervation | 810 | ||
| Factors maintaining stability | 810 | ||
| Movements | 810 | ||
| Movements at the Scapulothoracic ‘Joint’ | 810 | ||
| Elevation and depression | 810 | ||
| Protraction and retraction | 810 | ||
| Lateral and medial rotation | 813 | ||
| Glenohumeral (Shoulder) Joint | 813 | ||
| Articulating surfaces | 813 | ||
| Glenoid labrum | 813 | ||
| Fibrous capsule | 813 | ||
| Ligaments | 814 | ||
| Glenohumeral ligaments | 815 | ||
| Coracohumeral ligament | 815 | ||
| Transverse humeral ligament | 815 | ||
| Synovial membrane | 815 | ||
| Bursae | 815 | ||
| Vascular supply | 815 | ||
| Innervation | 815 | ||
| Factors maintaining stability | 815 | ||
| Movements at the Glenohumeral Joint | 815 | ||
| Muscles producing movements | 815 | ||
| Flexion | 815 | ||
| Extension | 816 | ||
| Abduction | 816 | ||
| Medial rotation | 816 | ||
| Lateral rotation | 816 | ||
| Glenohumeral joint dislocation | 816 | ||
| Muscles | 816 | ||
| Muscles of Scapular Suspension | 816 | ||
| Trapezius | 816 | ||
| Attachments | 816 | ||
| Variants | 816 | ||
| Vascular supply | 816 | ||
| Innervation | 816 | ||
| Actions | 816 | ||
| Testing | 817 | ||
| Pectoralis minor | 817 | ||
| Commentaries | e54 | ||
| Commentary 6.1 Injuries of the supraclavicular brachial plexus | e54 | ||
| Diagnosis | e55 | ||
| History | e56 | ||
| Pain | e56 | ||
| Inspection | e56 | ||
| Sensory loss | e56 | ||
| Muscle weakness | e57 | ||
| Recognition of postganglionic rupture | e57 | ||
| Investigations | e57 | ||
| Patterns of lesions | e58 | ||
| Treatment | e58 | ||
| Pain relief | e58 | ||
| References | e59 | ||
| Commentary 6.2 Nerves at risk from musculoskeletal injury | e60 | ||
| Fractures and dislocations | e60 | ||
| Tethering of nerves | e60 | ||
| Fascial arrangements | e61 | ||
| Neurovascular compartments | e61 | ||
| Collateral circulation | e61 | ||
| References | e62 | ||
| Commentary 6.3 Thoracic outlet syndromes | e63 | ||
| Suprapleural membrane (Sibson’s fascia) | e63 | ||
| First rib | e63 | ||
| Seventh cervical rib | e63 | ||
| Arterial thoracic outlet syndrome | e64 | ||
| Neurogenic thoracic outlet syndrome | e65 | ||
| Neural thoracic outlet syndrome without plain motor signs | e66 | ||
| References | e66 | ||
| 7 Thorax | 895 | ||
| 51 Thorax: | 898 | ||
| Musculoskeletal Framework | 898 | ||
| Bones and Joints | 898 | ||
| Muscles | 898 | ||
| Intrinsic and extrinsic muscles | 898 | ||
| Diaphragm | 899 | ||
| Diaphragmatic openings | 899 | ||
| Thoracic Cavity | 899 | ||
| Pleural Cavities | 899 | ||
| Mediastinum | 899 | ||
| Superior mediastinum | 899 | ||
| Inferior mediastinum | 899 | ||
| Anterior mediastinum | 899 | ||
| Middle mediastinum | 899 | ||
| Posterior mediastinum | 899 | ||
| Vascular Supply and Lymphatic Drainage | 899 | ||
| Arteries | 899 | ||
| Veins | 900 | ||
| Lymphatic Drainage | 900 | ||
| Innervation | 900 | ||
| Thoracic Spinal Nerves | 900 | ||
| Autonomic Innervation | 900 | ||
| Sympathetic trunks | 900 | ||
| Vagus nerves in the thorax | 901 | ||
| Autonomic plexuses in the thorax | 901 | ||
| Cardiac plexus | 901 | ||
| Pulmonary plexus | 901 | ||
| Oesophageal plexus | 901 | ||
| Surface Anatomy | 901 | ||
| Breast | 901 | ||
| Skeletal Landmarks | 901 | ||
| Musculotendinous Landmarks | 902 | ||
| Intrathoracic Viscera | 902 | ||
| Heart | 902 | ||
| Great vessels | 903 | ||
| Lungs and pleurae | 903 | ||
| Trachea and bronchi | 903 | ||
| Pulmonary fissures | 903 | ||
| Pleural reflections | 903 | ||
| Diaphragm | 904 | ||
| Key References | 904 | ||
| References | 904.e1 | ||
| 52 Development of the thorax | 905 | ||
| Thoracic Wall and Diaphragm | 905 | ||
| Congenital anomalies of the chest wall | 906 | ||
| Diaphragm | 906 | ||
| Diaphragmatic hernias | 907 | ||
| Oesophagus | 907 | ||
| Ultrasound antenatal imaging of the thorax | 907 | ||
| Heart and Great Vessels | 908 | ||
| Cells that Give Rise to the Heart | 908 | ||
| Endocardial cushions | 909 | ||
| Cardiac myocytes – contraction, conduction and automaticity | 910 | ||
| Heart Tube | 910 | ||
| Looping of the heart tube | 910 | ||
| Inflow Tract | 911 | ||
| Right atrium | 911 | ||
| Left atrium | 913 | ||
| Ventricles | 913 | ||
| Outflow Tract | 913 | ||
| Cardiac Function and the Conduction System | 914 | ||
| Septation of the Embryonic Cardiac Compartments | 915 | ||
| Septation of the atrial chambers | 915 | ||
| Septation and appropriate positioning of the atrioventricular canal | 916 | ||
| Septation of the ventricles | 917 | ||
| Septation and appropriate positioning of the outflow tract | 918 | ||
| Non-Myocardial Components of the Heart | 918 | ||
| Development of the epicardium and the coronary vasculature | 918 | ||
| Atrioventricular valves | 919 | ||
| Aortic and pulmonary valves | 919 | ||
| Fetal Circulation | 919 | ||
| Changes in the Fetal Circulation and Occlusion of Fetal Vessels after Birth | 920 | ||
| Ductus arteriosus | 921 | ||
| Closure of the ductus arteriosus | 922 | ||
| Fetal and Neonatal Heart | 922 | ||
| Congenital Heart Defects | 922 | ||
| Atrial septal defects | 923 | ||
| Ventricular septal defects | 923 | ||
| Anomalies of the Great Arteries and Veins | 924 | ||
| Ultrasound antenatal imaging of the heart and vessels | 924 | ||
| Neonatal Arterial and Venous Vessels | 924 | ||
| Central venous catheterization | 924 | ||
| Respiratory Tree | 924 | ||
| Trachea | 925 | ||
| Endotracheal intubation in the neonate | 926 | ||
| Lungs | 926 | ||
| Embryonic phase (0–7 weeks: appearance of lung buds and main pulmonary arteries) | 926 | ||
| Pseudoglandular phase (5–17 weeks: development of airways and blood vessels to level of acinus) | 926 | ||
| Canalicular phase (17–27 weeks: formation of respiratory airways and thinning of blood–gas barrier) | 927 | ||
| Saccular/alveolar phase (28 weeks to term: first appearance of alveoli in humans) | 927 | ||
| Alveolar phase | 927 | ||
| Development of the intrapulmonary vasculature and lymphatics | 927 | ||
| Intrauterine maturation of the lungs | 928 | ||
| Adverse effects on intrauterine lung development | 928 | ||
| Ultrasound antenatal imaging of the lungs | 928 | ||
| Functional changes in the lung around the time of birth | 928 | ||
| Postnatal Lung Development | 929 | ||
| Normal postnatal pulmonary arterial development | 929 | ||
| Stage one | 929 | ||
| Stage two | 929 | ||
| Stage three | 929 | ||
| Adverse effects on postnatal lung development | 929 | ||
| Congenital Malformations of the Trachea, Bronchi and Lungs | 929 | ||
| Disorders of the proximal airways | 930 | ||
| Tracheomalacia and bronchomalacia | 930.e1 | ||
| Tracheo-oesophageal fistulae | 930.e1 | ||
| Complete cartilage rings | 930.e1 | ||
| Disorders of the distal airways | 930 | ||
| Agenesis and aplasia of the lungs | 930.e1 | ||
| Bronchogenic and other cysts | 930.e1 | ||
| Bronchial atresia | 930.e2 | ||
| Key References | 930 | ||
| References | 930.e3 | ||
| 53 Chest wall and breast | 931 | ||
| Skin and Soft Tissue | 931 | ||
| Skin | 931 | ||
| Vascular supply | 931 | ||
| Arteries | 931 | ||
| Veins | 931 | ||
| Lymphatic drainage | 931 | ||
| Innervation | 931 | ||
| Soft Tissue | 931 | ||
| Superficial fascia | 931 | ||
| Deep fascia | 931 | ||
| Clavipectoral fascia | 931 | ||
| Bone and Cartilage | 931 | ||
| Sternum | 931 | ||
| Manubrium | 932 | ||
| Body | 933 | ||
| Xiphoid process (xiphisternum) | 933 | ||
| Muscle attachments | 933 | ||
| Vascular supply | 933 | ||
| Innervation | 933 | ||
| Ossification | 934 | ||
| Pectus excavatum | 934 | ||
| Pectus carinatum | 934 | ||
| Clavicle | 934 | ||
| Ribs | 934 | ||
| Typical rib | 934 | ||
| Attachments and relations | 935 | ||
| Vascular supply and innervation | 935 | ||
| Cervical rib | 935 | ||
| First rib | 936 | ||
| Vascular supply and innervation | 936 | ||
| Ossification | 936 | ||
| Second rib | 936 | ||
| Commentaries | e67 | ||
| Commentary 7.1 Technical aspects and applications of diagnostic radiology | e67 | ||
| Magnetic resonance imaging | e67 | ||
| MR tractography | e67 | ||
| Ultrasound | e68 | ||
| Nuclear medicine | e68 | ||
| Angiography/interventional radiology | e68 | ||
| Computed tomography | e69 | ||
| References | e69 | ||
| Commentary 7.2 Endobronchial ultrasound | e70 | ||
| History | e70 | ||
| Technique | e70 | ||
| Diagnosis and staging of lung cancer | e70 | ||
| Other uses | e70 | ||
| Complications | e70 | ||
| The future | e71 | ||
| References | e71 | ||
| 8 Abdomen and Pelvis | 1029 | ||
| 59 Abdomen and pelvis: | 1033 | ||
| General Structure and Function of the Abdominopelvic Cavity | 1033 | ||
| Musculoskeletal Framework of the Abdomen and Pelvis | 1033 | ||
| Thoracoabdominal interface | 1034 | ||
| Pelvis–lower limb interface | 1034 | ||
| General Arrangement of Abdominopelvic Autonomic Nerves | 1034 | ||
| Sympathetic innervation | 1034 | ||
| Greater splanchnic nerve | 1034 | ||
| Lesser splanchnic nerve | 1034 | ||
| Least splanchnic nerve | 1034 | ||
| Lumbar sympathetic system | 1034 | ||
| Somatic and vascular branches | 1034 | ||
| Lumbar splanchnic nerves | 1035 | ||
| Pelvic sympathetic system | 1035 | ||
| Somatic and vascular branches | 1036 | ||
| Sacral splanchnic nerves | 1036 | ||
| Parasympathetic innervation | 1036 | ||
| Pelvic splanchnic nerves | 1036 | ||
| Abdominopelvic autonomic plexuses and ganglia | 1036 | ||
| Coeliac plexus | 1036 | ||
| Coeliac and aorticorenal ganglia | 1037 | ||
| Phrenic plexus | 1038 | ||
| Superior mesenteric plexus and ganglion | 1038 | ||
| Intermesenteric plexus | 1038 | ||
| Inferior mesenteric plexus | 1038 | ||
| Superior hypogastric plexus | 1038 | ||
| Inferior hypogastric plexus | 1038 | ||
| Hypogastric nerves | 1038 | ||
| Other autonomic plexuses and ganglia | 1038 | ||
| Para-aortic bodies | 1038 | ||
| General Arrangement of Abdominopelvic Vascular Supply | 1038 | ||
| Arterial supply to the gastrointestinal tract | 1039 | ||
| Portal venous system | 1039 | ||
| Portal vein | 1039 | ||
| Tributaries of the portal vein | 1040 | ||
| General Microstructure of the Gut Wall | 1040 | ||
| Mucosa | 1040 | ||
| Epithelium | 1040 | ||
| Lamina propria | 1041 | ||
| Muscularis mucosae | 1041 | ||
| Submucosa | 1041 | ||
| Muscularis externa | 1041 | ||
| Interstitial cells | 1043 | ||
| Serosa and adventitia | 1043 | ||
| Vascular plexuses | 1043 | ||
| Innervation | 1043 | ||
| Extrinsic innervation | 1043 | ||
| Intrinsic innervation | 1043 | ||
| Surface Anatomy of the Abdomen and Pelvis | 1044 | ||
| Abdominal Planes and Regions | 1044 | ||
| Vertical lines and planes | 1044 | ||
| Horizontal lines and planes | 1044 | ||
| Abdominal regions | 1044 | ||
| Anterior Abdominal Wall | 1044 | ||
| Skeletal landmarks | 1044 | ||
| Soft tissue landmarks | 1044 | ||
| Umbilicus | 1044 | ||
| Rectus abdominis | 1044 | ||
| Linea alba | 1045 | ||
| Linea semilunaris | 1045 | ||
| Mid-inguinal point | 1045 | ||
| Inferior epigastric artery | 1045 | ||
| Superficial reflexes | 1045 | ||
| Cremasteric reflex | 1045 | ||
| Superficial abdominal reflex | 1046 | ||
| Intra-Abdominal Viscera | 1046 | ||
| Diaphragm | 1046 | ||
| Stomach | 1046 | ||
| Duodenum | 1046 | ||
| Small intestine and its mesentery | 1046 | ||
| Appendix | 1046 | ||
| Liver | 1046 | ||
| Gallbladder | 1046 | ||
| Spleen | 1046 | ||
| Retroperitoneal Viscera | 1046 | ||
| Pancreas | 1046 | ||
| Kidney | 1046 | ||
| Ureter | 1046 | ||
| Abdominal aorta and branches | 1046 | ||
| Unpaired visceral arteries | 1047 | ||
| Renal arteries | 1047 | ||
| Iliac arteries | 1047 | ||
| Inferior vena cava | 1047 | ||
| Pelvis | 1047 | ||
| Sciatic nerve | 1047 | ||
| Common Clinical Procedures | 1047 | ||
| Pneumoperitoneum for laparoscopy | 1047 | ||
| Surgical incisions | 1047 | ||
| Intestinal stomas (ileostomy, colostomy) | 1047 | ||
| Suprapubic catheterization | 1047 | ||
| Endoscopic surgery | 1047 | ||
| Key References | 1047 | ||
| References | 1047.e1 | ||
| 60 Development of the peritoneal cavity, gastrointestinal tract and its adnexae | 1048 | ||
| Postpharyngeal Foregut | 1048 | ||
| Oesophagus | 1048 | ||
| Oesophagus at birth | 1049 | ||
| Stomach | 1049 | ||
| Mucosa | 1049 | ||
| Muscularis | 1051 | ||
| Serosa | 1051 | ||
| Stomach at birth | 1051 | ||
| Duodenum | 1051 | ||
| Dorsal and Ventral Mesenteries of the Foregut | 1051 | ||
| Special Glands of the Postpharyngeal Foregut | 1051 | ||
| Pancreas | 1051 | ||
| Cellular development of the pancreas | 1052 | ||
| Liver | 1052 | ||
| Early liver development | 1052 | ||
| Maturation of the liver | 1053 | ||
| Development of intrahepatic biliary ducts | 1053 | ||
| Development of extrahepatic biliary ducts | 1053 | ||
| Midgut | 1054 | ||
| Primary Intestinal (or Midgut) Loop | 1054 | ||
| Anomalies of midgut rotation | 1054 | ||
| Umbilical Cord | 1054 | ||
| Maturation of the Small Intestine | 1054 | ||
| Mucosa | 1054 | ||
| Muscularis layer | 1056 | ||
| Commentaries | e72 | ||
| Commentary 8.1 The neurovascular bundles of the prostate | e72 | ||
| Acknowledgement | e74 | ||
| References | e74 | ||
| Commentary 8.2 Real-time microscopy of the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract and the hepatobiliary–pancreatic system during endoscopy | e76 | ||
| Introduction | e76 | ||
| Technology and devices | e76 | ||
| Upper gastrointestinal tract | e76 | ||
| Lower gastrointestinal tract | e77 | ||
| Hepatobiliary and pancreatic system | e77 | ||
| Perspective | e78 | ||
| Summary | e78 | ||
| References | e78 | ||
| 9 Pelvic Girdle and Lower Limb | 1314 | ||
| 78 Pelvic girdle and lower limb: | 1316 | ||
| Skin, Fascia and Soft Tissues | 1316 | ||
| Subcutaneous tissue (tela subcutanea) | 1316 | ||
| Fasciocutaneous system | 1317 | ||
| Osteofascial compartments in the lower limb | 1317 | ||
| Compartment syndrome | 1318 | ||
| Bones and Joints | 1318 | ||
| Muscles | 1318 | ||
| Vascular Supply and Lymphatic Drainage | 1319 | ||
| Arteries | 1319 | ||
| Arterial perforators of the lower limb and surgical flaps | 1319 | ||
| Veins | 1319 | ||
| Venous (muscle) pumps | 1320 | ||
| Venous plexuses | 1320 | ||
| Lymphatic Drainage | 1320 | ||
| Superficial tissues | 1321 | ||
| Deeper tissues | 1321 | ||
| Innervation | 1321 | ||
| Overview of the Lumbar and Sacral Plexuses | 1321 | ||
| Lesions of the lumbar and sacral plexuses | 1321 | ||
| Overview of the Principal Nerves of the Lower Limb | 1322 | ||
| Femoral nerve (L2–4) | 1322 | ||
| Obturator nerve (L2–4) | 1322 | ||
| Sciatic nerve (L4, L5, S1–3) | 1323 | ||
| Tibial nerve (L4, L5, S1–3) | 1324 | ||
| Common fibular nerve (L4, L5, S1, S2) | 1324 | ||
| Gluteal nerves (L4, L5, S1, S2) | 1324 | ||
| Cutaneous Innervation | 1324 | ||
| Dermatomes | 1324 | ||
| Autonomic Innervation | 1324 | ||
| Movements, Muscles and Segmental Innervation | 1324 | ||
| Movements | 1324 | ||
| Spinal nerves | 1324 | ||
| Reflexes | 1325 | ||
| Knee reflex (L2–4) | 1325 | ||
| Ankle reflex (S1, 2) | 1325 | ||
| Plantar reflex | 1325 | ||
| Neurological localization of a lesion | 1325 | ||
| Surface Anatomy | 1325 | ||
| Skeletal Landmarks | 1325 | ||
| Pelvis | 1325 | ||
| Femur | 1327 | ||
| Patella | 1328 | ||
| Knee | 1328 | ||
| Leg and ankle | 1328 | ||
| Foot | 1329 | ||
| Musculotendinous and Ligamentous Landmarks | 1330 | ||
| Buttock and hip | 1330 | ||
| Thigh | 1330 | ||
| Knee | 1330 | ||
| Leg | 1330 | ||
| Foot | 1330 | ||
| Vessels, Pulses and Nerves | 1331 | ||
| Arteries | 1331 | ||
| Pulses | 1331 | ||
| Femoral artery | 1331 | ||
| Popliteal artery | 1331 | ||
| Posterior tibial artery | 1331 | ||
| Dorsalis pedis artery | 1331 | ||
| Veins | 1331 | ||
| Nerves | 1331 | ||
| Clinical Procedures | 1332 | ||
| Nerve anaesthesia (nerve blocks) | 1332 | ||
| Intramuscular injection | 1332 | ||
| Joint injection and aspiration | 1332 | ||
| Commentaries | e80 | ||
| Commentary 9.1 Nerve biomechanics | e80 | ||
| References | e81 | ||
| Commentary 9.2 Functional anatomy and biomechanics of the pelvis | e82 | ||
| Sacroiliac joint movement | e82 | ||
| Sacroiliac joint stability | e82 | ||
| Biomechanical considerations and the active straight leg raise (ASLR) test in pelvic girdle pain (PGP) patients | e82 | ||
| References | e82 | ||
| Commentary 9.3 Articularis genus | e84 | ||
| References | e86 | ||
| Subject Index | 1453 | ||
| A | 1453 | ||
| B | 1463 | ||
| C | 1466 | ||
| D | 1479 | ||
| E | 1481 | ||
| F | 1484 | ||
| G | 1491 | ||
| H | 1495 | ||
| I | 1497 | ||
| J | 1499 | ||
| K | 1502 | ||
| L | 1502 | ||
| M | 1510 | ||
| N | 1518 | ||
| O | 1526 | ||
| P | 1528 | ||
| Q | 1535 | ||
| R | 1535 | ||
| S | 1539 | ||
| T | 1549 | ||
| U | 1555 | ||
| V | 1556 | ||
| W | 1561 | ||
| X | 1561 | ||
| Y | 1561 | ||
| Z | 1561 | ||
| Eponyms | e87 | ||
| Historical Bibliography | e101 | ||
| A | e101 | ||
| B | e106 | ||
| C | e119 | ||
| D | e126 | ||
| E | e131 | ||
| F | e134 | ||
| G | e139 | ||
| H | e146 | ||
| I | e155 | ||
| J | e156 | ||
| K | e159 | ||
| L | e166 | ||
| M | e174 | ||
| N | e185 | ||
| O | e188 | ||
| P | e191 | ||
| Q | e197 | ||
| R | e197 | ||
| S | e204 | ||
| T | e218 | ||
| U | e222 | ||
| V | e223 | ||
| W | e225 | ||
| X | e232 | ||
| Y | e232 | ||
| Z | e233 | ||
| Bonus Gray’s ‘Commentaries’ | ibc1 | ||
| Commentary 7.1 Technical aspects and applications of diagnostic radiology | ibc1 | ||
| Magnetic resonance imaging | ibc1 | ||
| MR tractography | ibc2 | ||
| Ultrasound | ibc2 | ||
| Nuclear medicine | ibc2 | ||
| Angiography/interventional radiology | ibc3 | ||
| Computed tomography | ibc3 | ||
| References | ibc3 | ||
| Commentary 9.1 Nerve biomechanics | ibc4 | ||
| References | ibc5 |