BOOK
The Practice of Nursing Research - E-Book
Jennifer R. Gray | Susan K. Grove | Nancy Burns
(2013)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Learn how to properly evaluate and use existing research data and how to conduct your own original research. This authoritative text gives provides a comprehensive foundation for appraisal, synthesis, and generation of research evidence for clinical nursing practice. This new edition also features enhanced coverage of the research methods most applicable to evidence-based practice (outcomes research, intervention research, and translational research), along with a significant increase in the coverage of qualitative research methodologies.
- Comprehensive coverage of nursing research organizes content into five units: Introduction to Nursing Research, Nursing Research Processes, Tools for Evidence-Based Healthcare, Strategies for Analyzing Research and Building an Evidence-Based Practice, and Writing Proposals and Obtaining Funding.
- Rich and frequent examples from the literature demonstrate the importance and immediacy of research in nursing practice and bring principles to life through the context of actual published studies.
- Strong coverage of quantitative and other clinically-applicable research methodologies gives you a solid grounding to conduct, appraise, and apply research evidence to the realities of clinical practice in today’s healthcare environment.
- NEW! Enhanced emphasis on evidence-based practice equips you to generate research evidence and to appraise and synthesize existing research for application to clinical practice. Using the ANCC Magnet Recognition Program criteria as a point of focus, this book prepares you for today’s emphasis on evidence-based practice in the clinical setting.
- NEW! Expanded emphasis on qualitative research addresses phenomenological research, grounded theory research, ethnographic research, exploratory-descriptive research, and historical research to support the development of nursing.
- NEW! Updated coverage of digital data collection guides you through use of the internet for research and addresses the unique considerations surrounding digital data collection methods.
- NEW! Pageburst ebook study guide gives you the opportunity to fully master and apply the text content in a convenient electronic format with integrated interactive review questions.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| Inside Front Cover | ifc1 | ||
| Half title page | i | ||
| Evolve page | ii | ||
| The Practice of Nursing Research: Appraisal, Synthesis, and Generation of Evidence, 7/e | iii | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Contributors | vi | ||
| Reviewers | vii | ||
| Preface | viii | ||
| New Content | ix | ||
| Student Ancillaries | x | ||
| Instructor Ancillaries | xi | ||
| Acknowledgments | xii | ||
| Table Of Contents | xiii | ||
| Unit One Introduction to Nursing Research | 1 | ||
| 1 Discovering the World of Nursing Research | 1 | ||
| Definition of Nursing Research | 1 | ||
| Framework Linking Nursing Research to the World of Nursing | 2 | ||
| Concrete-Abstract Continuum | 2 | ||
| Empirical World | 3 | ||
| Reality Testing Using Research | 3 | ||
| Roles of Nurses in Research | 3 | ||
| Abstract Thought Processes | 4 | ||
| Introspection | 5 | ||
| Intuition | 5 | ||
| Reasoning | 6 | ||
| Problematic Reasoning | 6 | ||
| Operational Reasoning | 6 | ||
| Dialectic Reasoning | 6 | ||
| Logistic Reasoning | 6 | ||
| Inductive and Deductive Reasoning | 7 | ||
| Science | 7 | ||
| Theory | 8 | ||
| Knowledge | 8 | ||
| Ways of Acquiring Nursing Knowledge | 8 | ||
| Traditions | 9 | ||
| Authority | 9 | ||
| Borrowing | 9 | ||
| Trial and Error | 9 | ||
| Personal Experience | 10 | ||
| Role-Modeling and Mentorship | 10 | ||
| Philosophy | 10 | ||
| Significance of Research in Building an Evidence-Based Practice for Nursing | 11 | ||
| Description | 12 | ||
| Explanation | 13 | ||
| Prediction | 13 | ||
| Control | 13 | ||
| Key Points | 14 | ||
| References | 15 | ||
| 2 Evolution of Research in Building Evidence-Based Nursing Practice | 17 | ||
| Historical Development of Research in Nursing | 17 | ||
| Florence Nightingale | 17 | ||
| Early 1900s | 19 | ||
| Nursing Research in the 1950s and 1960s | 19 | ||
| Nursing Research in the 1970s | 20 | ||
| Nursing Research in the 1980s and 1990s | 21 | ||
| Nursing Research in the 21st Century | 22 | ||
| Methodologies for Developing Research Evidence in Nursing | 23 | ||
| Comparison of Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research | 23 | ||
| Philosophical Origins of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods | 24 | ||
| Focuses of Quantitative and Qualitative Research Methods | 24 | ||
| Uniqueness of Conducting Quantitative Research and Qualitative Research | 25 | ||
| Classification of Research Methodologies Presented in this Text | 25 | ||
| Quantitative Research Methods | 26 | ||
| Descriptive Research | 26 | ||
| Correlational Research | 26 | ||
| Quasi-Experimental Research | 26 | ||
| Experimental Research | 26 | ||
| Qualitative Research Methods | 27 | ||
| Phenomenological Research | 27 | ||
| Grounded Theory Research | 27 | ||
| Ethnographic Research | 27 | ||
| Exploratory-Descriptive Qualitative Research | 27 | ||
| Historical Research | 27 | ||
| Outcomes Research | 27 | ||
| Intervention Research | 28 | ||
| Introduction to Best Research Evidence for Practice | 28 | ||
| Definition of Best Research Evidence | 28 | ||
| Levels of Research Evidence | 30 | ||
| Introduction to Evidence-Based Practice Guidelines | 31 | ||
| Key Points | 31 | ||
| References | 32 | ||
| 3 Introduction to Quantitative Research | 34 | ||
| Concepts Relevant to Quantitative Research | 34 | ||
| Basic Research | 34 | ||
| Applied Research | 35 | ||
| Rigor in Quantitative Research | 36 | ||
| Control in Quantitative Research | 36 | ||
| Sampling and Attrition | 37 | ||
| Research Settings | 37 | ||
| Development and Implementation of Study Interventions or Treatments | 37 | ||
| Measurement of Study Variables | 38 | ||
| Subjects’ Knowledge of a Study | 38 | ||
| Steps of the Quantitative Research Process | 38 | ||
| Formulating a Research Problem and Purpose | 39 | ||
| Review of Relevant Literature | 40 | ||
| Developing a Framework | 41 | ||
| Making Assumptions Explicit | 41 | ||
| Formulating Research Objectives, Questions, or Hypotheses | 42 | ||
| Defining Study Variables | 42 | ||
| Selecting a Research Design | 43 | ||
| Defining the Population and Sample | 44 | ||
| Selecting Methods of Measurement | 44 | ||
| Developing a Plan for Data Collection and Analysis | 45 | ||
| Implementing the Research Plan | 45 | ||
| Pilot Study | 46 | ||
| Data Collection | 46 | ||
| Data Analysis | 46 | ||
| Interpreting Research Outcomes | 48 | ||
| Communicating Research Findings | 49 | ||
| Types of Quantitative Research | 49 | ||
| Descriptive Research | 49 | ||
| Correlational Research | 49 | ||
| Quasi-Experimental Research | 50 | ||
| Experimental Research | 53 | ||
| Key Points | 53 | ||
| References | 54 | ||
| 4 Introduction to Qualitative Research | 57 | ||
| Perspective of the Qualitative Researcher | 57 | ||
| Philosophy Describes a View of Science | 57 | ||
| Philosophy Guides Methods | 58 | ||
| Philosophy Guides Criteria of Rigor | 58 | ||
| Approaches to Qualitative Research | 59 | ||
| Phenomenological Research | 60 | ||
| Philosophical Orientation | 60 | ||
| Phenomenology’s Contribution to Nursing Science | 61 | ||
| Grounded Theory Research | 62 | ||
| Philosophical Orientation | 63 | ||
| Grounded Theory’s Contribution to Nursing Science | 63 | ||
| Ethnographic Research | 63 | ||
| Philosophical Orientation | 64 | ||
| Ethnography’s Contribution to Nursing Science | 65 | ||
| Exploratory-Descriptive Qualitative Research | 66 | ||
| Philosophical Orientation | 66 | ||
| Exploratory-Descriptive Qualitative Research’s Contribution to Nursing Science | 66 | ||
| Historical Research | 68 | ||
| Philosophical Orientation | 68 | ||
| Historical Research’s Contribution to Nursing Science | 68 | ||
| Key Points | 69 | ||
| References | 69 | ||
| Unit Two The Research Process | 73 | ||
| 5 Research Problem and Purpose | 73 | ||
| What Is a Research Problem and Purpose? | 73 | ||
| Sources of Research Problems | 75 | ||
| Clinical Practice | 75 | ||
| Researcher and Peer Interactions | 76 | ||
| Literature Review | 76 | ||
| Replication of Studies | 77 | ||
| Theory | 78 | ||
| Research Priorities | 79 | ||
| Formulating a Research Problem and Purpose | 81 | ||
| Examining a Real-World Situation and Identifying Research Topics | 81 | ||
| Generating Questions and Reviewing the Literature | 81 | ||
| Clarifying and Refining a Research Problem | 82 | ||
| Research Purpose | 83 | ||
| Example of Problem and Purpose Development | 83 | ||
| Feasibility of a Study | 84 | ||
| Time Commitment | 84 | ||
| Money Commitment | 84 | ||
| Researcher Expertise | 85 | ||
| Availability of Subjects or Participants | 85 | ||
| Availability of Facilities and Equipment | 86 | ||
| Cooperation of Others | 86 | ||
| Ethical Considerations | 86 | ||
| Example Research Topics, Problems, and Purposes for Different Types of Research | 87 | ||
| Quantitative Research | 87 | ||
| Qualitative Research | 87 | ||
| Outcomes Research | 92 | ||
| Intervention Research | 93 | ||
| Key Points | 93 | ||
| References | 94 | ||
| 6 Review of Relevant Literature | 97 | ||
| What Is “The Literature”? | 97 | ||
| What Is a Literature Review? | 97 | ||
| Purposes of Reviewing the Literature | 98 | ||
| Writing a Course Paper | 98 | ||
| Examining the Strength of the Evidence | 98 | ||
| Developing a Qualitative Research Proposal | 98 | ||
| Developing a Quantitative Study | 98 | ||
| Practical Considerations | 100 | ||
| What Types of Literature Can I Expect to Find? | 100 | ||
| How Long Will the Review of the Literature Take? | 101 | ||
| How Many Sources Do I Need to Review? | 101 | ||
| Am I Expected to Read Every Word of the Available Sources? | 101 | ||
| Stages of a Literature Review | 102 | ||
| Searching the Literature | 102 | ||
| Develop a Search Plan | 102 | ||
| Select Databases to Search | 103 | ||
| Search Strategies | 104 | ||
| Keywords | 104 | ||
| Authors | 105 | ||
| Complex Searches | 105 | ||
| Limiting Your Search | 106 | ||
| Searching the Internet | 106 | ||
| Locate Relevant Literature | 106 | ||
| Systematically Record References | 107 | ||
| Use Reference Management Software | 107 | ||
| Saved Searches and Alerts | 108 | ||
| Processing the Literature | 108 | ||
| Reading | 108 | ||
| Appraising and Analyzing Sources | 108 | ||
| Sorting Your Sources | 109 | ||
| Synthesizing Sources | 110 | ||
| Writing the Review of Literature | 110 | ||
| Writing Suggestions | 110 | ||
| Organization of Written Reviews | 111 | ||
| Introduction | 111 | ||
| Discussion of Theoretical Literature | 111 | ||
| Discussion of Empirical Literature | 111 | ||
| Summary | 112 | ||
| Refining the Written Review | 112 | ||
| Checking References | 112 | ||
| Example of a Literature Review | 112 | ||
| Key Points | 114 | ||
| References | 114 | ||
| 7 Frameworks | 116 | ||
| Definition of Terms | 116 | ||
| Concept | 116 | ||
| Relational Statements | 116 | ||
| Conceptual Models | 117 | ||
| Theory | 117 | ||
| Middle-Range Theories | 117 | ||
| Research Frameworks | 117 | ||
| Understanding Concepts | 117 | ||
| Concept Synthesis | 118 | ||
| Concept Derivation | 118 | ||
| Concept Analysis | 119 | ||
| Importance of a Conceptual Definition: An Example | 119 | ||
| Examining Relational Statements | 120 | ||
| Characteristics of Relational Statements | 120 | ||
| Direction | 120 | ||
| Shape | 121 | ||
| Strength | 121 | ||
| Symmetry | 122 | ||
| Sequencing | 123 | ||
| Probability of Occurrence | 123 | ||
| Necessity | 123 | ||
| Sufficiency | 123 | ||
| Statement Hierarchy | 124 | ||
| Grand Theories | 125 | ||
| Application of Middle-Range Theories | 125 | ||
| Appraising Theories and Research Frameworks | 127 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of a Research Framework | 127 | ||
| Developing a Research Framework for Study | 130 | ||
| Identifying and Adapting an Existing Theory | 130 | ||
| Synthesis from Research Findings | 130 | ||
| Proposing a Framework from Practice Experiences | 131 | ||
| Defining Relevant Concepts | 132 | ||
| Developing Relational Statements | 132 | ||
| Developing Hierarchical Statement Sets | 132 | ||
| Constructing a Conceptual Map | 132 | ||
| Key Points | 134 | ||
| References | 135 | ||
| 8 Objectives, Questions, Hypotheses, and Study Variables | 138 | ||
| Formulating Research Objectives or Aims | 138 | ||
| Formulating Objectives or Aims in Quantitative Studies | 138 | ||
| Formulating Objectives or Aims in Qualitative Studies | 139 | ||
| Formulating Research Questions | 140 | ||
| Formulating Questions in Quantitative Studies | 140 | ||
| Formulating Questions in Qualitative Studies | 141 | ||
| Formulating Hypotheses | 142 | ||
| Purpose of Hypotheses | 142 | ||
| Sources of Hypotheses | 142 | ||
| Types of Hypotheses | 144 | ||
| Associative versus Causal Hypotheses | 144 | ||
| Simple versus Complex Hypotheses | 146 | ||
| Nondirectional versus Directional Hypotheses | 147 | ||
| Null versus Research Hypotheses | 147 | ||
| Developing Hypotheses | 148 | ||
| Testing Hypotheses | 149 | ||
| Selecting Objectives, Questions, or Hypotheses for Quantitative or Qualitative Research | 150 | ||
| Identifying and Defining Study Variables | 150 | ||
| Types of Variables | 151 | ||
| Independent and Dependent Variables | 151 | ||
| Research Variables or Concepts | 151 | ||
| Extraneous Variables | 152 | ||
| Demographic Variables | 154 | ||
| Moderator and Mediator Variables | 154 | ||
| Operationalizing Variables or Concepts for a Study | 155 | ||
| Conceptual and Operational Definitions of Variables in Quantitative Studies | 155 | ||
| Conceptual Definitions in Qualitative Studies | 156 | ||
| Key Points | 157 | ||
| References | 157 | ||
| 9 Ethics in Research | 159 | ||
| Historical Events Affecting the Development of Ethical Codes and Regulations | 159 | ||
| Nazi Medical Experiments | 160 | ||
| Nuremberg Code | 160 | ||
| Declaration of Helsinki | 160 | ||
| Tuskegee Syphilis Study | 160 | ||
| Willowbrook Study | 161 | ||
| Jewish Chronic Disease Hospital Study | 162 | ||
| U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare Regulations | 162 | ||
| National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research | 162 | ||
| Protection of Human Rights | 163 | ||
| Right to Self-Determination | 164 | ||
| Preventing Violation of Research Subjects’ Right to Self-Determination | 164 | ||
| Protecting Persons with Diminished Autonomy | 165 | ||
| Legally and Mentally Incompetent Subjects | 165 | ||
| Neonates | 165 | ||
| Children | 166 | ||
| Pregnant Women | 167 | ||
| Adults with Diminished Capacity | 167 | ||
| Terminally Ill Subjects | 169 | ||
| Subjects Confined to Institutions | 169 | ||
| Right to Privacy | 169 | ||
| De-identifying Protected Health Information under the Privacy Rule | 170 | ||
| Limited Data Set and Data Use Agreement | 170 | ||
| Right to Autonomy and Confidentiality | 171 | ||
| Breach of Confidentiality | 172 | ||
| Maintaining Confidentiality | 172 | ||
| Right to Fair Treatment | 173 | ||
| Fair Selection of Subjects | 173 | ||
| Fair Treatment of Subjects | 174 | ||
| Right to Protection from Discomfort and Harm | 174 | ||
| No Anticipated Effects | 174 | ||
| Temporary Discomfort | 174 | ||
| Unusual Levels of Temporary Discomfort | 175 | ||
| Risk of Permanent Damage | 175 | ||
| Certainty of Permanent Damage | 175 | ||
| Balancing Benefits and Risks for a Study | 175 | ||
| Assessment of Benefits | 175 | ||
| Assessment of Risks | 176 | ||
| Benefit-Risk Ratio | 176 | ||
| Obtaining Informed Consent | 176 | ||
| Information Essential for Consent | 177 | ||
| Introduction of Research Activities | 177 | ||
| Description of Risks and Discomforts | 177 | ||
| Description of Benefits | 177 | ||
| Disclosure of Alternatives | 177 | ||
| Assurance of Anonymity and Confidentiality | 177 | ||
| Compensation for Participation in Research | 178 | ||
| Offer to Answer Questions | 178 | ||
| Noncoercive Disclaimer | 178 | ||
| Option to Withdraw | 178 | ||
| Consent to Incomplete Disclosure | 178 | ||
| Comprehension of Consent Information | 178 | ||
| Competence to Give Consent | 180 | ||
| Voluntary Consent | 180 | ||
| Documentation of Informed Consent | 180 | ||
| Written Consent Waived | 180 | ||
| Written Consent Documents | 180 | ||
| Short-Form Written Consent Document | 180 | ||
| Formal Written Consent Document | 181 | ||
| Recording of the Consent Process | 182 | ||
| Authorization for Research Uses and Disclosure | 182 | ||
| Authorization Core Elements (see Privacy Rule, 45 CFR Section 164.508[c][1]) | 182 | ||
| Institutional Review | 183 | ||
| Levels of Reviews Conducted by Institutional Review Boards | 183 | ||
| Influence of HIPAA Privacy Rule on Institutional Review Boards | 187 | ||
| Research Misconduct | 187 | ||
| Role of the ORI in Promoting the Conduct of Ethical Research | 188 | ||
| Role of Journal Editors and Researchers in Preventing Scientific Misconduct | 189 | ||
| Animals as Research Subjects | 190 | ||
| Key Points | 191 | ||
| References | 192 | ||
| 10 Understanding Quantitative Research Design | 195 | ||
| Concepts Important to Design | 195 | ||
| Causality | 195 | ||
| Multicausality | 196 | ||
| Probability | 196 | ||
| Causality and Nursing Philosophy | 196 | ||
| Bias | 197 | ||
| Manipulation | 197 | ||
| Control | 197 | ||
| Study Validity | 197 | ||
| Statistical Conclusion Validity | 198 | ||
| Low Statistical Power | 198 | ||
| Violated Assumptions of Statistical Tests | 198 | ||
| Fishing and the Error Rate Problem | 198 | ||
| Reliability of Measures | 198 | ||
| Reliability of Intervention Implementation | 198 | ||
| Random Irrelevancies in the Experimental Setting | 199 | ||
| Random Heterogeneity of Respondents | 199 | ||
| Internal Validity | 199 | ||
| Controlling the Environment | 199 | ||
| Maturation | 199 | ||
| Testing Effect | 199 | ||
| Instrumentation | 199 | ||
| Selection | 199 | ||
| Subject Attrition | 200 | ||
| Interactions with Selection | 200 | ||
| Diffusion or Imitation of Treatments | 200 | ||
| Compensatory Equalization of Treatments | 200 | ||
| Resentful Demoralization of Respondents Receiving Less Desirable Treatments | 200 | ||
| Construct Validity | 200 | ||
| Inadequate Preoperational Clarification of Constructs | 200 | ||
| Mono-Operation Bias | 201 | ||
| Monomethod Bias | 201 | ||
| Hypothesis Guessing within Experimental Conditions | 201 | ||
| Evaluation Apprehension | 201 | ||
| Experimenter Expectancies (Rosenthal Effect) | 201 | ||
| Confounding Constructs and Levels of Constructs | 201 | ||
| Interaction of Different Treatments | 202 | ||
| Interaction of Testing and Treatment | 202 | ||
| External Validity | 202 | ||
| Interaction of Selection and Treatment | 202 | ||
| Interaction of Setting and Treatment | 202 | ||
| Interaction of History and Treatment | 202 | ||
| Elements of a Good Design | 202 | ||
| Controlling the Environment | 203 | ||
| Controlling Equivalence of Subjects and Groups | 203 | ||
| Control and Comparison Groups | 203 | ||
| Controlling the Treatment | 203 | ||
| Counterbalancing | 204 | ||
| Controlling Measurement | 204 | ||
| Controlling Extraneous Variables | 204 | ||
| Random Sampling | 205 | ||
| Random Assignment | 206 | ||
| Homogeneity | 206 | ||
| Heterogeneity | 206 | ||
| Blocking | 206 | ||
| Stratification | 207 | ||
| Matching | 207 | ||
| Statistical Control | 207 | ||
| Questions to Direct Design Development and Implementation in a Study | 207 | ||
| Mixed Methods | 208 | ||
| Sequential Explanatory Strategy | 209 | ||
| Sequential Exploratory Strategy | 210 | ||
| Sequential Transformative Strategy | 210 | ||
| Concurrent Triangulation Strategy | 211 | ||
| Key Points | 212 | ||
| References | 212 | ||
| 11 Selecting a Quantitative Research Design | 214 | ||
| Descriptive Study Designs | 215 | ||
| Typical Descriptive Study Designs | 216 | ||
| Comparative Descriptive Designs | 217 | ||
| Time-Dimensional Designs | 218 | ||
| Longitudinal Designs | 219 | ||
| Cross-Sectional Designs | 220 | ||
| Trend Designs | 221 | ||
| Event-Partitioning Designs | 222 | ||
| Case Study Designs | 223 | ||
| Surveys | 224 | ||
| Correlational Study Designs | 224 | ||
| Descriptive Correlational Designs | 225 | ||
| Predictive Designs | 226 | ||
| Model-Testing Designs | 227 | ||
| Defining Therapeutic Nursing Interventions | 228 | ||
| The Nursing Interventions Classification | 229 | ||
| Designing an Intervention for a Nursing Study | 229 | ||
| Quasi-experimental Study Designs | 231 | ||
| Random Assignment to Groups | 232 | ||
| Control and Comparison Groups | 233 | ||
| Nonequivalent Comparison Group Designs | 234 | ||
| One-Group Posttest-Only Design | 234 | ||
| Posttest-Only Design with a Comparison Group | 234 | ||
| One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design | 234 | ||
| Pretest and Posttest Design with a Comparison Group | 237 | ||
| Pretest and Posttest Design with Two Comparison Treatments | 237 | ||
| Pretest and Posttest Design with a Removed Treatment | 238 | ||
| Pretest and Posttest Design with a Reversed Treatment | 240 | ||
| Interrupted Time-Series Designs | 241 | ||
| Simple Interrupted Time-Series Design | 242 | ||
| Interrupted Time-Series Design with a No-Treatment Comparison Group | 243 | ||
| Interrupted Time-Series Design with Multiple Treatment Replications | 244 | ||
| Experimental Study Designs | 244 | ||
| Classic Experimental Design | 245 | ||
| Experimental Posttest-Only Comparison Group Design | 246 | ||
| Randomized Blocking Designs | 246 | ||
| Factorial Design | 247 | ||
| Nested Designs | 248 | ||
| Crossover or Counterbalanced Designs | 249 | ||
| Clinical Trials | 250 | ||
| Randomized Controlled Trials | 251 | ||
| Studies That Do Not Use Traditional Research Designs | 254 | ||
| Primary Prevention and Health Promotion Studies | 254 | ||
| Secondary Analyses | 254 | ||
| Methodological Designs | 255 | ||
| Algorithms for Selecting Research Designs | 256 | ||
| Key Points | 256 | ||
| References | 261 | ||
| 12 Qualitative Research Methodology | 264 | ||
| Clinical Context and Research Problems | 264 | ||
| Literature Review for Qualitative Studies | 265 | ||
| Theoretical Frameworks | 265 | ||
| Purposes | 266 | ||
| Research Objectives or Questions | 266 | ||
| Obtaining Research Participants | 267 | ||
| Researcher-Participant Relationships | 268 | ||
| Data Collection Methods | 268 | ||
| Observations | 269 | ||
| Example Study Using Observation | 270 | ||
| Interviews | 271 | ||
| Learning to Interview | 272 | ||
| Establishing a Positive Environment for an Interview | 272 | ||
| Conducting an Effective Interview | 272 | ||
| Problems during Interviews | 273 | ||
| Example Study Using Interviews | 273 | ||
| Focus Groups | 274 | ||
| Example Study Using Focus Groups | 276 | ||
| Electronically Mediated Data | 276 | ||
| Transcribing Recorded Data | 278 | ||
| Data Management | 279 | ||
| Data Analysis | 279 | ||
| Immersion in the Data | 280 | ||
| Coding | 281 | ||
| Content Analysis | 281 | ||
| Narrative Analysis | 282 | ||
| Memoing | 283 | ||
| Findings and Conclusions | 283 | ||
| Reporting Results | 284 | ||
| Methods Specific to Qualitative Approaches | 284 | ||
| Phenomenological Research Methods | 284 | ||
| Grounded Theory Methodology | 285 | ||
| Ethnographical Methodology | 286 | ||
| Gatekeepers and Informants | 286 | ||
| Gathering and Analyzing Data | 286 | ||
| Exploratory-Descriptive Qualitative Methodology | 287 | ||
| Historical Research Methodology | 289 | ||
| Sources | 289 | ||
| Historical Data Analysis | 289 | ||
| Writing the Historical Narrative | 289 | ||
| Key Points | 290 | ||
| References | 291 | ||
| 13 Outcomes Research | 294 | ||
| Theoretical Basis of Outcomes Research | 294 | ||
| Evaluating Outcomes | 296 | ||
| Evaluating Process | 296 | ||
| Standards of Care | 296 | ||
| Practice Styles | 297 | ||
| Costs of Care | 297 | ||
| Evaluating Structure | 298 | ||
| Federal Government Involvement in Outcomes Research | 300 | ||
| Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality | 300 | ||
| American Recovery and Reinvestment Act | 300 | ||
| Medical Outcomes Study | 301 | ||
| Origins of Outcomes/ Performance Monitoring | 302 | ||
| Outcomes Research and Nursing Practice | 302 | ||
| Nursing-Sensitive Patient Outcomes | 303 | ||
| The Collaborative Alliance for Nursing Outcomes California Database Project | 304 | ||
| National Quality Forum | 304 | ||
| Oncology Nursing Society | 305 | ||
| Advanced Practice Nursing Outcomes Research | 305 | ||
| Methodologies for Outcomes Studies | 306 | ||
| Samples and Sampling | 306 | ||
| Large Databases as Sample Sources | 306 | ||
| Research Strategies for Outcomes Studies | 308 | ||
| Consensus Knowledge Building | 308 | ||
| Practice Pattern Profiling | 308 | ||
| Prospective Cohort Studies | 309 | ||
| Retrospective Cohort Studies | 310 | ||
| Population-Based Studies | 311 | ||
| Geographical Analyses | 311 | ||
| Economic Studies | 312 | ||
| Ethical Studies | 314 | ||
| Measurement Methods | 314 | ||
| Statistical Methods for Outcomes Studies | 315 | ||
| Analysis of Change | 315 | ||
| Analysis of Improvement | 315 | ||
| Variance Analysis | 315 | ||
| Latent Transition Analysis | 317 | ||
| Multilevel Analysis | 317 | ||
| Disseminating Outcomes Research Findings | 318 | ||
| Key Points | 318 | ||
| References | 319 | ||
| 14 Intervention-Based Research | 323 | ||
| Intervention-Based Research Conducted by Nurses | 323 | ||
| Nursing Interventions | 324 | ||
| Variations in Nursing Interventions | 324 | ||
| Nursing Intervention Taxonomies | 325 | ||
| Problems Examined by Intervention Studies | 325 | ||
| Programs of Nursing Intervention Research | 326 | ||
| Theory-based Interventions | 327 | ||
| Scientific Rationale for Interventions | 328 | ||
| Terminology for Intervention-Based Research | 329 | ||
| Efficacy versus Effectiveness | 329 | ||
| Treatment Effect Size | 330 | ||
| Placebo and Sham Interventions | 330 | ||
| Blinding versus Open Label | 331 | ||
| Treatment Fidelity | 332 | ||
| Dose-Intensity of the Intervention | 332 | ||
| Numbers Needed to Treat | 333 | ||
| Analysis of Intention-to-Treat | 334 | ||
| Responder Analysis | 334 | ||
| Types of Research Designs | 335 | ||
| Experimental and Quasi-experimental Designs | 335 | ||
| Parallel Group Randomized Controlled Trials | 335 | ||
| Crossover Randomized Controlled Trials | 336 | ||
| Cluster Randomized Controlled Trials | 336 | ||
| Preference Clinical Trials | 336 | ||
| Treatment Matching Designs | 337 | ||
| Open-Label Designs | 337 | ||
| Nonexperimental Designs | 337 | ||
| Observational Studies | 337 | ||
| Retrospective Descriptive Studies | 338 | ||
| Planning Intervention Research | 338 | ||
| Project Planning | 338 | ||
| Forming a Project Team | 338 | ||
| Work of the Project Team | 338 | ||
| Gathering Information | 339 | ||
| Design and Testing of Interventions | 339 | ||
| Designing the Intervention | 340 | ||
| Study Outcomes | 341 | ||
| Extraneous Factors | 342 | ||
| Process of Testing the Intervention | 342 | ||
| Intervention Validation | 342 | ||
| Pilot Testing of an Intervention | 343 | ||
| Formal Testing of an Intervention | 344 | ||
| Advanced Testing | 344 | ||
| Testing Variations in Effectiveness Based on Variations in Patient Characteristics | 344 | ||
| Testing Variations in Effectiveness Based on Setting | 345 | ||
| Testing Variations in Effectiveness Based on Variations in Intervener Characteristics | 345 | ||
| Testing Variations in Effectiveness Based on Strength of an Intervention | 345 | ||
| Data Collection | 345 | ||
| Threats to Study Validity | 347 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Intervention-Based Research | 347 | ||
| Key Points | 347 | ||
| References | 348 | ||
| 15 Sampling | 351 | ||
| Sampling Theory | 351 | ||
| Populations and Elements | 351 | ||
| Sampling or Eligibility Criteria | 352 | ||
| Sample Representativeness | 353 | ||
| Sampling Error | 354 | ||
| Random Variation | 354 | ||
| Systematic Variation | 354 | ||
| Refusal and Acceptance Rates in Studies | 355 | ||
| Sample Attrition and Retention Rates in Studies | 355 | ||
| Randomization | 356 | ||
| Sampling Frame | 357 | ||
| Sampling Plan | 357 | ||
| Probability (Random) Sampling Methods | 357 | ||
| Simple Random Sampling | 358 | ||
| Stratified Random Sampling | 359 | ||
| Cluster Sampling | 360 | ||
| Systematic Sampling | 361 | ||
| Nonprobability (Nonrandom) Sampling Methods Commonly Applied in Quantitative Research | 362 | ||
| Convenience Sampling | 363 | ||
| Quota Sampling | 364 | ||
| Nonprobability Sampling Methods Commonly Applied in Qualitative Research | 364 | ||
| Purposive Sampling | 365 | ||
| Network (Snowball) Sampling | 366 | ||
| Theoretical Sampling | 366 | ||
| Sample Size in Quantitative Research | 367 | ||
| Effect Size | 368 | ||
| Type of Study | 369 | ||
| Number of Variables | 370 | ||
| Measurement Sensitivity | 370 | ||
| Data Analysis Techniques | 371 | ||
| Sample Size in Qualitative Research | 371 | ||
| Scope of the Study | 371 | ||
| Nature of the Topic | 372 | ||
| Quality of the Data | 372 | ||
| Study Design | 372 | ||
| Research Settings | 373 | ||
| Recruiting and Retaining Research Participants | 374 | ||
| Recruiting Research Participants | 374 | ||
| Retaining Subjects | 379 | ||
| Key Points | 379 | ||
| References | 380 | ||
| 16 Measurement Concepts | 382 | ||
| Directness of Measurement | 382 | ||
| Measurement Error | 383 | ||
| Types of Measurement Errors | 383 | ||
| Levels of Measurement | 385 | ||
| Nominal Level of Measurement | 386 | ||
| Ordinal Level of Measurement | 386 | ||
| Interval Level of Measurement | 387 | ||
| Ratio Level of Measurement | 387 | ||
| Importance of Level of Measurement for Statistical Analyses | 387 | ||
| Controversy over Measurement Levels | 387 | ||
| Reference Testing of Measurement | 388 | ||
| Reliability | 389 | ||
| Stability Reliability | 389 | ||
| Equivalence Reliability | 390 | ||
| Internal Consistency | 391 | ||
| Validity | 393 | ||
| Face and Content Validity | 394 | ||
| Readability of an Instrument | 397 | ||
| Validity from Factor Analysis | 398 | ||
| Validity from Structural Analysis | 400 | ||
| Convergent Validity | 400 | ||
| Divergent Validity | 401 | ||
| Validity from Contrasting (or Known) Groups | 401 | ||
| Evidence of Validity from Discriminant Analysis | 401 | ||
| Validity from Prediction of Future Events and Concurrent Events | 401 | ||
| Successive Verification of Validity | 402 | ||
| Accuracy, Precision, and Error of Physiological Measures | 402 | ||
| Accuracy | 403 | ||
| Precision | 403 | ||
| Sensitivity | 404 | ||
| Error | 404 | ||
| Sensitivity, Specificity, and Likelihood Ratios | 406 | ||
| Sensitivity and Specificity | 406 | ||
| Likelihood Ratios | 408 | ||
| Key Points | 408 | ||
| References | 409 | ||
| 17 Measurement Methods Used in Developing Evidence-Based Practice | 411 | ||
| Physiological Measurement | 411 | ||
| Obtaining Physiological Measures by Self-Report | 412 | ||
| Obtaining Physiological Measures by Observation | 413 | ||
| Obtaining Physiological Measures Directly or Indirectly | 413 | ||
| Obtaining Physiological Measures from Laboratory Tests | 414 | ||
| Obtaining Physiological Measures through Electronic Monitoring | 415 | ||
| Genetic Advancements in Measuring Nucleic Acids | 417 | ||
| Developing New Physiological Measures | 418 | ||
| Obtaining Physiological Measures across Time | 419 | ||
| Selecting a Physiological Measure | 420 | ||
| Reporting Physiological Measures in Studies | 421 | ||
| Observational Measurement | 421 | ||
| Structured Observations | 421 | ||
| Category Systems | 421 | ||
| Rating Scales | 422 | ||
| Interviews | 422 | ||
| Structured Interviews | 422 | ||
| Designing Interview Questions | 422 | ||
| Pilot-Testing the Interview Protocol | 424 | ||
| Training Interviewers | 424 | ||
| Preparing for an Interview | 424 | ||
| Probing | 424 | ||
| Recording Interview Data | 424 | ||
| Advantages and Disadvantages of Interviews | 424 | ||
| Questionnaires | 425 | ||
| Development of Questionnaires | 426 | ||
| Questionnaire Validity | 428 | ||
| Analysis of Questionnaire Data | 429 | ||
| Scales | 429 | ||
| Rating Scale | 429 | ||
| Likert Scale | 430 | ||
| Semantic Differential Scale | 431 | ||
| Visual Analogue Scale | 433 | ||
| Q-Sort Methodology | 434 | ||
| Delphi Technique | 435 | ||
| Diaries | 437 | ||
| Measurement Using Existing Databases | 439 | ||
| Existing Healthcare Data | 439 | ||
| Selection of an Existing Instrument | 440 | ||
| Locating Existing Instruments | 440 | ||
| Evaluating Existing Instruments for Appropriateness and Performance | 442 | ||
| Assessing Readability Levels of Instruments | 442 | ||
| Constructing Scales | 442 | ||
| Constructing a Scale by Using Classic Test Theory | 442 | ||
| Constructing a Scale by Using Item Response Theory | 444 | ||
| Constructing a Scale by Using Multidimensional Scaling | 445 | ||
| Constructing a Scale by Using Unfolding Theory | 445 | ||
| Translating a Scale to Another Language | 445 | ||
| Key Points | 446 | ||
| References | 447 | ||
| Unit Three Putting It All Together for Evidence-Based Health Care | 451 | ||
| 18 Critical Appraisal of Nursing Studies | 451 | ||
| Evolution of Critical Appraisal of Research in Nursing | 451 | ||
| When Are Critical Appraisals of Research Implemented in Nursing? | 452 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Studies by Students | 452 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Research by Practicing Nurses | 452 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Research by Nurse Educators | 453 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Studies by Nurse Researchers | 453 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Research Presentations and Publications | 453 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Abstracts for Conference Presentations | 453 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Research Articles for Publication | 453 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of Research Proposals | 453 | ||
| Nurses’ Expertise in Critical Appraisal of Research | 454 | ||
| Critical Appraisal Process for Quantitative Research | 454 | ||
| Step I: Identifying the Steps of the Research Process in Studies | 455 | ||
| Guidelines for Identifying the Steps of the Research Process | 455 | ||
| Step II: Determining Study Strengths and Weaknesses | 458 | ||
| Guidelines for Determining Study Strengths and Weaknesses | 459 | ||
| Step III: Evaluating a Study | 462 | ||
| Guidelines for Evaluating a Study | 462 | ||
| Critical Appraisal Process for Qualitative Studies | 462 | ||
| Prerequisites for Critical Appraisal of Qualitative Studies | 463 | ||
| Critical Appraisal Guidelines for Qualitative Studies | 463 | ||
| Problem Statement | 463 | ||
| Purpose and Research Questions | 463 | ||
| Literature Review | 463 | ||
| Philosophical Foundation | 464 | ||
| Qualitative Approach | 464 | ||
| Sampling and Sample | 464 | ||
| Data Collection | 464 | ||
| Protection of Human Study Participants | 464 | ||
| Data Management and Analysis | 465 | ||
| Findings | 465 | ||
| Discussion | 465 | ||
| Logic and Form of Findings | 465 | ||
| Evaluation Summary | 465 | ||
| Key Points | 465 | ||
| References | 466 | ||
| 19 Evidence Synthesis and Strategies for Evidence-Based Practice | 468 | ||
| Benefits and Barriers Related to Evidence-Based Nursing Practice | 468 | ||
| Benefits of Evidence-Based Practice in Nursing | 469 | ||
| Barriers of Evidence-Based Practice in Nursing | 470 | ||
| Guidelines for Synthesizing Research Evidence | 471 | ||
| Guidelines for Implementing and Evaluating Systematic Reviews | 472 | ||
| Step 1: Formulate a Relevant Clinical Question to Direct the Review | 474 | ||
| Step 2: State the Purpose and Objectives or Aims of the Review | 474 | ||
| Step 3: Identify the Literature Search Criteria and Strategies | 474 | ||
| Step 4: Conduct a Comprehensive Search of the Research Literature | 476 | ||
| Step 5: Selection of Studies for Review | 476 | ||
| Step 6: Critical Appraisal of the Studies Included in Review | 477 | ||
| Step 7: Conduct a Meta-Analysis If Appropriate | 479 | ||
| Step 8: Results of the Review | 479 | ||
| Step 9: Discussion Section of the Review | 479 | ||
| Step 10: Development of the Final Report for Publication | 480 | ||
| Critical Appraisal of a Published Systematic Review | 480 | ||
| Conducting Meta-Analyses to Synthesize Research Evidence | 482 | ||
| Clinical Question for Meta-Analysis | 483 | ||
| Purpose and Questions to Direct Meta-Analysis | 483 | ||
| Search Criteria and Strategies for Meta-Analyses | 483 | ||
| Possible Biases for Meta-Analyses and Systematic Reviews | 484 | ||
| Results of Meta-Analysis for Continuous Outcomes | 486 | ||
| Results of Meta-Analysis for Dichotomous Outcomes | 486 | ||
| Conducting Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research | 489 | ||
| Framing a Meta-Synthesis Exercise | 490 | ||
| Searching the Literature and Selecting Sources | 490 | ||
| Appraisal of Studies and Analysis of Data | 491 | ||
| Discussion of Meta-Synthesis Findings | 491 | ||
| Mixed-Methods Systematic Reviews | 492 | ||
| Models to Promote Evidence-Based Practice in Nursing | 493 | ||
| Stetler Model of Research Utilization to Facilitate Evidence-Based Practice | 493 | ||
| Phase I: Preparation | 493 | ||
| Phase II: Validation | 495 | ||
| Phase III: Comparative Evaluation and Decision Making | 495 | ||
| Phase IV: Translation and Application | 495 | ||
| Phase V: Evaluation | 496 | ||
| Iowa Model of Evidence-Based Practice | 496 | ||
| Implementing Evidence-Based Guidelines in Practice | 496 | ||
| Development of Evidence-Based Guidelines | 496 | ||
| Implementing the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure Evidence-Based Guideline in Practice | 499 | ||
| Evidence-Based Practice Centers | 502 | ||
| Introduction to Translational Research | 503 | ||
| Key Points | 503 | ||
| References | 504 | ||
| Unit Four Analyzing Data, Determining Outcomes, and Disseminating Research | 507 | ||
| 20 Collecting and Managing Data | 507 | ||
| Data Collection Modes | 507 | ||
| Researcher-Administered or Participant-Administered Instruments | 507 | ||
| Electronic Data Collection | 508 | ||
| Scannable Forms | 508 | ||
| Online Data Collection | 508 | ||
| Computer-Based Data Collection | 513 | ||
| Phones and Other Electronic Devices | 514 | ||
| Factors Influencing Data Collection | 515 | ||
| Cost Factors | 515 | ||
| Time Factors | 515 | ||
| Consistency | 516 | ||
| Availability of Assistance | 516 | ||
| Data Collection and Coding Plan | 517 | ||
| Data Collection Forms | 517 | ||
| Data Collection Detailed Plan | 519 | ||
| Decision Points | 520 | ||
| Developing a Codebook for Data Definitions | 520 | ||
| Pilot Study | 523 | ||
| Collecting Data | 523 | ||
| Data Collection Tasks | 523 | ||
| Maintaining Control | 524 | ||
| Problem Solving | 524 | ||
| Data Collection Problems | 524 | ||
| People Problems | 524 | ||
| Problems Selecting a Sample | 525 | ||
| Subject Attrition | 525 | ||
| Subject as an Object | 526 | ||
| External Influences on Subject Responses | 527 | ||
| Passive Resistance | 527 | ||
| Researcher Problems | 528 | ||
| Researcher Interactions | 528 | ||
| Lack of Skill in Data Collection Techniques | 528 | ||
| Researcher Role Conflict | 528 | ||
| Maintaining Perspective | 529 | ||
| Institutional Problems | 529 | ||
| Event Problems | 529 | ||
| Serendipity | 530 | ||
| Having Access to Support Systems | 530 | ||
| Support of Academic Committees | 530 | ||
| Institutional Support | 531 | ||
| Colleague Support | 531 | ||
| Data Safety and Monitoring Board as Source of Support | 531 | ||
| Managing Data | 531 | ||
| Preparing Data for Computer Entry | 531 | ||
| Data Entry Period | 532 | ||
| Storage and Retrieval of Data | 532 | ||
| Key Points | 532 | ||
| References | 533 | ||
| 21 Introduction to Statistical Analysis | 534 | ||
| Concepts of Statistical Theory | 534 | ||
| Probability Theory | 535 | ||
| Classical Hypothesis Testing | 535 | ||
| Type I and Type II Errors | 536 | ||
| Statistical Power | 536 | ||
| Statistical Significance versus Clinical Importance | 537 | ||
| Inference | 537 | ||
| Samples and Populations | 537 | ||
| Types of Statistics | 538 | ||
| Descriptive Statistics | 538 | ||
| Measures of Central Tendency | 538 | ||
| Normal Curve | 538 | ||
| Sampling Distributions | 538 | ||
| Symmetry | 539 | ||
| Skewness | 540 | ||
| Modality | 540 | ||
| Kurtosis | 541 | ||
| Tests of Normality | 541 | ||
| Variation | 541 | ||
| Confidence Intervals | 541 | ||
| Inferential Statistics | 542 | ||
| Parametric Statistics | 542 | ||
| Nonparametric Statistics | 542 | ||
| Practical Aspects of Data Analysis | 542 | ||
| Preparing the Data for Analysis | 542 | ||
| Cleaning the Data | 543 | ||
| Identifying Missing Data | 543 | ||
| Data Transformations | 543 | ||
| Data Calculations and Scoring | 543 | ||
| Data Storage and Documentation | 543 | ||
| Description of the Sample | 544 | ||
| Testing the Reliability of Measurement Methods | 544 | ||
| Exploratory Analysis of the Data | 544 | ||
| Using Tables and Graphs for Exploratory Analysis | 545 | ||
| Confirmatory Analysis | 545 | ||
| Post Hoc Analysis | 545 | ||
| Choosing Appropriate Statistical Procedures for a Study | 546 | ||
| Key Points | 548 | ||
| References | 548 | ||
| 22 Using Statistics to Describe Variables | 550 | ||
| Using Statistics to Summarize Data | 550 | ||
| Frequency Distributions | 550 | ||
| Measures of Central Tendency | 552 | ||
| Mode | 552 | ||
| Median | 553 | ||
| Mean | 553 | ||
| Using Statistics to Explore Deviations in the Data | 554 | ||
| Measures of Dispersion | 554 | ||
| Range | 554 | ||
| Difference Scores | 554 | ||
| Variance | 554 | ||
| Standard Deviation | 555 | ||
| Normal Curve | 555 | ||
| Sampling Error | 557 | ||
| Confidence Intervals | 558 | ||
| Degrees of Freedom | 558 | ||
| Key Points | 558 | ||
| References | 559 | ||
| 23 Using Statistics to Examine Relationships | 560 | ||
| Scatter Diagrams | 560 | ||
| Bivariate Correlational Analysis | 560 | ||
| Pearson’s Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient | 561 | ||
| Calculation | 562 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 563 | ||
| Effect Size | 564 | ||
| Nonparametric Alternatives | 564 | ||
| Role of Correlation in Understanding Causality | 565 | ||
| Spurious Correlations | 565 | ||
| Bland and Altman Plots | 565 | ||
| Example | 565 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 566 | ||
| Factor Analysis and Principal Components Analysis | 566 | ||
| Example | 567 | ||
| “Naming” the Factor | 568 | ||
| Factor Scores | 568 | ||
| Key Points | 568 | ||
| References | 569 | ||
| 24 Using Statistics to Predict | 570 | ||
| Simple Linear Regression | 570 | ||
| Calculation of Simple Linear Regression | 571 | ||
| Calculation Steps | 572 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 573 | ||
| Multiple Regression | 573 | ||
| Multicollinearity | 573 | ||
| Types of Independent Variables Used in Regression Analyses | 574 | ||
| Dummy Variables | 574 | ||
| Odds Ratio | 575 | ||
| Calculation | 575 | ||
| Interpretation | 575 | ||
| Confidence Intervals | 575 | ||
| Logistic Regression | 576 | ||
| Calculation | 576 | ||
| Odds Ratio (OR) in Logistic Regression | 576 | ||
| Cox Proportional Hazards Regression | 577 | ||
| Key Points | 578 | ||
| References | 578 | ||
| 25 Using Statistics to Determine Differences | 580 | ||
| Choosing Parametric versus Nonparametric Statistics to Determine Differences | 580 | ||
| t-tests | 580 | ||
| t-test for Independent Samples | 581 | ||
| Calculation | 581 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 582 | ||
| Nonparametric Alternative | 582 | ||
| t-tests for Paired Samples | 583 | ||
| Calculation | 583 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 584 | ||
| Nonparametric Alternative | 584 | ||
| One-Way Analysis of Variance | 584 | ||
| Calculation | 585 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 586 | ||
| Nonparametric Alternative | 586 | ||
| Other ANOVA Procedures | 587 | ||
| Chi-Square Test of Independence | 587 | ||
| Assumptions | 587 | ||
| Calculation | 587 | ||
| Interpretation of Results | 588 | ||
| Key Points | 588 | ||
| References | 588 | ||
| 26 Interpreting Research Outcomes | 590 | ||
| Examining Evidence | 590 | ||
| Evidence from the Research Plan | 590 | ||
| Evidence from Measurement | 591 | ||
| Evidence from the Data Collection Process | 592 | ||
| Evidence from the Data Analysis Process | 593 | ||
| Evidence from Data Analysis Results | 594 | ||
| Significant and Predicted Results | 594 | ||
| Nonsignificant Results | 594 | ||
| Significant and Not Predicted Results | 594 | ||
| Mixed Results | 594 | ||
| Unexpected Results | 595 | ||
| Evidence from Previous Studies | 595 | ||
| Determining Findings | 595 | ||
| Forming Conclusions | 597 | ||
| Identifying Limitations | 598 | ||
| Generalizing the Findings | 598 | ||
| Considering Implications | 599 | ||
| Recommending Further Research | 599 | ||
| Key Points | 600 | ||
| References | 600 | ||
| 27 Disseminating Research Findings | 602 | ||
| Content of a Research Report | 602 | ||
| Quantitative Research Report | 603 | ||
| Introduction | 604 | ||
| Review of Literature | 604 | ||
| Framework | 604 | ||
| Methods | 605 | ||
| Design | 605 | ||
| Sample and Setting | 606 | ||
| Measures | 607 | ||
| Data Collection Process and Procedures | 607 | ||
| Analysis Plan | 608 | ||
| Results | 608 | ||
| Presentation of Results in Figures and Tables | 609 | ||
| Figures | 609 | ||
| Tables | 610 | ||
| Discussion | 613 | ||
| Reference Citations | 614 | ||
| Qualitative Research Report | 614 | ||
| Introduction | 615 | ||
| Methods | 616 | ||
| Analysis Plan | 617 | ||
| Results | 617 | ||
| Discussion | 618 | ||
| Theses and Dissertations | 619 | ||
| Audiences for Communication of Research Findings | 619 | ||
| Strategies for Communicating Research to Different Audiences | 619 | ||
| Audience of Nurses | 619 | ||
| Audience of Healthcare Professionals and Policy Makers | 621 | ||
| Audience of Healthcare Consumers | 621 | ||
| Presenting Research Findings | 621 | ||
| Verbal Presentations | 622 | ||
| Receiving Acceptance as a Presenter | 622 | ||
| Developing an Oral Research Presentation | 624 | ||
| Delivering a Research Report and Responding to Questions | 625 | ||
| Poster Sessions | 625 | ||
| Publishing Research Findings | 627 | ||
| Publishing a Journal Article | 628 | ||
| Selecting a Journal | 628 | ||
| Journal Impact Factor | 628 | ||
| Developing a Query Letter | 629 | ||
| Preparing a Manuscript | 629 | ||
| Submitting a Manuscript for Review | 630 | ||
| Peer Review | 630 | ||
| Responding to Requests to Revise a Manuscript | 630 | ||
| Publishing Research Findings in Online Journals | 631 | ||
| Publishing Research Findings in Books | 632 | ||
| Duplicate Publications and Self-Plagiarism | 632 | ||
| Key Points | 632 | ||
| References | 633 | ||
| Unit Five Proposing and Seeking Funding for Research | 635 | ||
| 28 Writing Research Proposals | 635 | ||
| Writing a Research Proposal | 635 | ||
| Developing Ideas Logically | 635 | ||
| Determining the Depth of a Proposal | 636 | ||
| Identifying Critical Points | 636 | ||
| Developing an Esthetically Appealing Copy | 636 | ||
| Content of a Research Proposal | 636 | ||
| Content of a Student Proposal | 636 | ||
| Content of a Quantitative Research Proposal | 637 | ||
| Introduction | 638 | ||
| Review of Relevant Literature | 638 | ||
| Framework | 638 | ||
| Methods and Procedures | 638 | ||
| Content of a Qualitative Research Proposal | 640 | ||
| Introduction | 640 | ||
| Philosophical and Conceptual Foundation and General Methods for the Proposed Study | 642 | ||
| Method of Inquiry | 642 | ||
| Current Knowledge Base, Limitations, and Plans for Communication of the Study | 643 | ||
| Content of a Condensed Proposal | 644 | ||
| Content of a Preproposal | 644 | ||
| Seeking Approval for a Study | 644 | ||
| Approval Process | 645 | ||
| Preparing Proposals for Review Committees | 645 | ||
| Social and Political Factors | 646 | ||
| Verbal Presentation of a Proposal | 646 | ||
| Revising a Proposal | 647 | ||
| Example of a Quantitative Research Proposal | 647 | ||
| APPENDIX A: Intervention Protocol for Transitional Care Nurse Practitioner (TCNP) Visit Protocol | 655 | ||
| Study RN Protocol for Comparison Group | 656 | ||
| APPENDIX B: Study Protocol | 656 | ||
| Recruiting/Intake—Study Registered Nurse (RN) | 656 | ||
| Intervention Group: | 657 | ||
| Scripting for Transitional Care Program Introduction during Inpatient Visit | 657 | ||
| Study RN—Data Collection on Comparison Group Patients | 658 | ||
| APPENDIX C: Data Collection Form | 658 | ||
| APPENDIX D: Informed Consent | 659 | ||
| Principal Investigator Name: | 659 | ||
| Title of Project: | 659 | ||
| Introduction | 659 | ||
| Purpose | 659 | ||
| Duration | 659 | ||
| Procedures | 659 | ||
| Possible Benefits | 659 | ||
| Compensation | 659 | ||
| Possible Risks/Discomforts | 659 | ||
| Alternative Procedures/Treatments | 659 | ||
| Withdrawal from the Study | 659 | ||
| Number of Participants | 659 | ||
| Confidentiality | 659 | ||
| Contact for Questions | 660 | ||
| Consent Signatures | 660 | ||
| APPENDIX E: Morisky Medication Adherence Scale | 660 | ||
| Key Points | 660 | ||
| References | 661 | ||
| 29 Seeking Funding for Research | 663 | ||
| Building a Program of Research | 663 | ||
| Contribution | 664 | ||
| Capacity | 665 | ||
| Capital | 665 | ||
| Getting Started | 665 | ||
| Level of Commitment | 665 | ||
| Support of Other People | 665 | ||
| Grantsmanship | 666 | ||
| Attending Courses and Workshops | 666 | ||
| Apprenticeship | 666 | ||
| Regional Nursing Research Organizations | 667 | ||
| Serving on Research Committees | 667 | ||
| Identifying Funding Sources | 667 | ||
| Types of Grants | 667 | ||
| Nongovernment Funding | 667 | ||
| Private or Local Funding | 667 | ||
| National Nursing Organizations | 668 | ||
| Industry | 668 | ||
| Foundations | 669 | ||
| Government Funding | 669 | ||
| Investigator-Initiated Proposals | 669 | ||
| Requests for Proposals and Applications | 670 | ||
| Submitting a Proposal for a Federal Grant | 670 | ||
| Ensuring a Unique Proposal | 670 | ||
| Verifying Institutional Support | 670 | ||
| Making Time to Write | 670 | ||
| Understanding the Review Process | 671 | ||
| Responding to Rejected Grant Proposals | 671 | ||
| Grant Management | 671 | ||
| Managing the Budget | 671 | ||
| Training Research Personnel | 672 | ||
| Maintaining the Study Schedule | 672 | ||
| Coordinating Activities | 672 | ||
| Submitting Reports | 672 | ||
| Planning Your Next Grant | 672 | ||
| Key Points | 672 | ||
| References | 673 | ||
| Appendices | 674 | ||
| Appendix A Z Values Table | 674 | ||
| Appendix B Critical Values for Student’s t Distribution | 677 | ||
| Appendix C Critical Values of r for Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient | 679 | ||
| Appendix D Critical Values of F for α = 0.05 and α = 0.01 | 680 | ||
| Appendix E Critical Values of the χ2 Distribution | 683 | ||
| Appendix F Statistical Power Tables (Δ = Effect Size) | 684 | ||
| Glossary | 686 | ||
| A | 686 | ||
| B | 687 | ||
| C | 688 | ||
| D | 691 | ||
| E | 693 | ||
| F | 694 | ||
| G | 695 | ||
| H | 695 | ||
| I | 696 | ||
| J | 698 | ||
| K | 698 | ||
| L | 698 | ||
| M | 699 | ||
| N | 700 | ||
| O | 701 | ||
| P | 702 | ||
| Q | 705 | ||
| R | 706 | ||
| S | 708 | ||
| T | 711 | ||
| U | 712 | ||
| V | 712 | ||
| W | 713 | ||
| Y | 713 | ||
| Z | 713 | ||
| Index | 714 | ||
| A | 714 | ||
| B | 715 | ||
| C | 715 | ||
| D | 717 | ||
| E | 718 | ||
| F | 719 | ||
| G | 719 | ||
| H | 720 | ||
| I | 721 | ||
| J | 722 | ||
| K | 722 | ||
| L | 722 | ||
| M | 722 | ||
| N | 723 | ||
| O | 724 | ||
| P | 725 | ||
| Q | 726 | ||
| R | 727 | ||
| S | 729 | ||
| T | 731 | ||
| U | 732 | ||
| V | 732 | ||
| W | 732 | ||
| X | 732 | ||
| Y | 732 | ||
| Z | 732 | ||
| Levels of research evidence | 736 | ||
| Inside Back Cover | ibc1 |