BOOK
Grainger & Allison's Diagnostic Radiology E-Book
Andy Adam | Adrian K. Dixon | Jonathan H Gillard | Cornelia Schaefer-Prokop | Ronald G. Grainger | David J. Allison
(2014)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| e9780702061288v1 | 1 | ||
| Front cover | 1 | ||
| Half title page | 2 | ||
| Grainger & Allison’s Diagnostic Radiology | 4 | ||
| Copyright page | 5 | ||
| Table of Contents | 6 | ||
| Preface | 10 | ||
| List of Section Editors | 11 | ||
| List of Contributors | 12 | ||
| A Principles of Imaging Techniques and General Issues | 22 | ||
| 1 Medical Physics: | 24 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 24 | ||
| Radiation Risks | 24 | ||
| Deterministic and Stochastic Effects | 24 | ||
| Fetal Exposure | 25 | ||
| Legislation and Principles of Radiation Protection | 26 | ||
| Patient Doses in Diagnostic Imaging | 27 | ||
| Estimating Patient Doses | 27 | ||
| Typical Patient Doses | 28 | ||
| Detectors for Radiography and Fluoroscopy | 28 | ||
| Optimising Patient Dose | 29 | ||
| Optimising Patient Dose in Nuclear Medicine | 29 | ||
| Areas of Special Attention | 30 | ||
| Pregnancy and Potential Pregnancy | 30 | ||
| Infants and Children | 30 | ||
| Research Exposures | 31 | ||
| Health Screening Programmes | 31 | ||
| High-Dose Techniques | 31 | ||
| Radiation Protection of Staff and Public | 31 | ||
| Distance, Time and Shielding | 31 | ||
| Personal Protection in Nuclear Medicine | 32 | ||
| Radiation Hazards from Nuclear Medicine Patients | 32 | ||
| Dose Monitoring | 33 | ||
| Pregnant Staff | 33 | ||
| Clinical Application of Radiation Dose Optimisation in CT | 33 | ||
| Introduction | 33 | ||
| Terms Describing CT Dose | 33 | ||
| Standard Dose | 33 | ||
| Optimised Dose | 33 | ||
| Low Dose | 34 | ||
| Radiation Dose Descriptors in CT | 34 | ||
| Volume Computed Tomography Dose Index (CTDIvol) | 34 | ||
| Dose–Length Products (DLPs) | 34 | ||
| How to Set Up a Dose Optimisation Process | 35 | ||
| AEC System: Principles and Pitfalls | 35 | ||
| Two Methods for Validating Dose Optimisation | 36 | ||
| Step-by-Step Reductions | 36 | ||
| Side-by-Side Comparisons of Standard and Optimised CT Studies | 36 | ||
| Parameter Optimisation | 37 | ||
| Tube Current–Time Product | 37 | ||
| Reconstruction Algorithm or Kernel | 37 | ||
| The Tube Potential | 37 | ||
| The Collimation and Reconstructed Slice Thickness | 38 | ||
| The Pitch Factor and the Concept of Effective mAs | 38 | ||
| Adequate References as Goals for Optimisation | 38 | ||
| Up-to-Date Optimised CT Parameters | 38 | ||
| CT of the Brain | 38 | ||
| CT of the Sinus | 38 | ||
| CT of the Thorax | 39 | ||
| CT of the Abdomen and Pelvis | 39 | ||
| CT of the Lumbar Spine | 42 | ||
| Summary and Conclusion | 42 | ||
| Further Reading | 46 | ||
| Online-only References | 47 | ||
| 2 Intravascular Contrast Media for Radiography, CT, MRI and Ultrasound | 49 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 49 | ||
| Introduction | 49 | ||
| Contrast Media for Radiography and CT | 49 | ||
| Barium-Based Contrast Agents | 49 | ||
| Iodine-Based Contrast Media | 50 | ||
| High-Osmolar Ionic Contrast Media (Fig. 2-3) | 50 | ||
| Low-Osmolar Ionic Contrast Media (Fig. 2-4) | 51 | ||
| Low-Osmolar Non-ionic Contrast Media (Fig. 2-5) | 51 | ||
| Iso-Osmolar Non-ionic Contrast Media (Fig. 2-6) | 51 | ||
| Pharmacokinetics | 51 | ||
| Quantity of Contrast Medium Required | 53 | ||
| Contrast Media for MR Imaging | 53 | ||
| Gadolinium-Based Contrast Media | 54 | ||
| Pharmacokinetics | 54 | ||
| Quantity of Contrast Medium Required | 57 | ||
| Iron-Based Contrast Media | 57 | ||
| Manganese-Based Contrast Media | 57 | ||
| Tissue-Specific MR Contrast Agents | 57 | ||
| Use of Extracellular MR Contrast Agents for Radiographic Examinations | 58 | ||
| Contrast Media for Ultrasound | 58 | ||
| Microbubbles | 59 | ||
| Pharmacokinetics | 59 | ||
| Effect on Echogenicity | 59 | ||
| Safety | 59 | ||
| Recommendations | 60 | ||
| Potential Developments | 60 | ||
| Informed Consent | 60 | ||
| Summary of Product Characteristics (sPc) | 60 | ||
| Off-Label Use | 61 | ||
| Adverse reactions | 61 | ||
| Types of Reactions | 61 | ||
| Idiosyncratic Reactions | 61 | ||
| Chemotoxic Reactions | 62 | ||
| Vasomotor Reactions | 62 | ||
| Acute Non-renal Adverse Reactions | 62 | ||
| Incidence | 62 | ||
| Treatment | 62 | ||
| Risk Factors | 65 | ||
| Prevention | 66 | ||
| Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agents | 66 | ||
| Acute Renal Adverse Reactions (Contrast-Induced Nephropathy) | 66 | ||
| Late Adverse Reactions | 69 | ||
| Very Late Adverse Reactions | 69 | ||
| Thyrotoxicosis | 69 | ||
| Nephrogenic Systemic Fibrosis (NSF) | 69 | ||
| Pregnancy and Lactation | 72 | ||
| Interaction | 72 | ||
| Extravasation | 72 | ||
| Measurement of Glomerular Filtration Rate | 73 | ||
| Further Reading | 73 | ||
| Online-only References | 75 | ||
| 3 Ultrasound | 76 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 76 | ||
| Nature of Ultrasound | 76 | ||
| Ultrasonic Transducers | 76 | ||
| Propagation in Tissue | 77 | ||
| Attenuation | 77 | ||
| Reflection | 78 | ||
| Ultrasound Methods | 79 | ||
| The Pulse-Echo Method | 79 | ||
| Beam Steering | 80 | ||
| Resolution | 82 | ||
| Artefacts | 84 | ||
| Interpretative Principles | 85 | ||
| Shadowing and Increased Through Transmission | 85 | ||
| Echogenicity | 87 | ||
| Doppler | 87 | ||
| Theoretical Basis of Doppler Studies | 87 | ||
| Characteristics of Blood Flow | 88 | ||
| Information in the Doppler Signal | 89 | ||
| Pulsatility Measurements | 90 | ||
| Spectral Content | 91 | ||
| Colour Doppler | 91 | ||
| Power Doppler | 92 | ||
| Volume Flow Measurement | 92 | ||
| Doppler Artefacts, Errors and Pitfalls | 93 | ||
| Sample Volume Size and Position | 93 | ||
| Velocity Information | 93 | ||
| Wall Filters | 94 | ||
| Colour Artefacts | 94 | ||
| Contrast Agents | 96 | ||
| Safety | 97 | ||
| Developments in Ultrasound | 98 | ||
| High Frequencies, 3D, Elastography | 98 | ||
| Ultrasound Therapy | 99 | ||
| Acknowledgements | 99 | ||
| Further Reading | 99 | ||
| Physics | 99 | ||
| Clinical | 99 | ||
| Safety | 99 | ||
| New Developments | 99 | ||
| 4 Computed Tomography | 100 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 100 | ||
| Computed Tomography (CT): A Brief History | 100 | ||
| Principles of Computed Tomography | 100 | ||
| CT Numbers and Image Matrix | 101 | ||
| Generations of CT Development | 101 | ||
| X-Ray Tubes | 101 | ||
| X-Ray Detectors | 101 | ||
| Slice Wars and Beyond | 102 | ||
| Image Reconstruction | 103 | ||
| Filtered Back Projection | 103 | ||
| Iterative Reconstruction | 103 | ||
| Helical CT | 103 | ||
| Reconstruction of Arbitrary Section Thickness and Orientation | 103 | ||
| Image Quality and Radiation Dose | 104 | ||
| Contrast Media | 106 | ||
| Preparation | 106 | ||
| Contrast Medium Injection | 107 | ||
| Potential Complications | 107 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Contrast Agents | 107 | ||
| Optimising Image Acquisition | 107 | ||
| CT Protocols | 108 | ||
| Planning | 108 | ||
| CT Parameters | 108 | ||
| CT Data Acquisition Timing | 108 | ||
| Image Analysis | 108 | ||
| CT-Guided Interventions | 109 | ||
| Planning and Patient Preparation | 109 | ||
| Procedure | 109 | ||
| Follow-Up | 109 | ||
| Advanced Techniques | 109 | ||
| Cardiac CT | 109 | ||
| Dual-Energy CT | 111 | ||
| Subtraction Imaging | 111 | ||
| CT Perfusion | 112 | ||
| Motion Analysis | 112 | ||
| Further Reading | 113 | ||
| Online-only References | 114 | ||
| 5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 115 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 115 | ||
| Historical Perspective | 115 | ||
| Spin Physics | 115 | ||
| Excitation and Relaxation: Free Induction Decay and Echoes | 116 | ||
| Signal Localisation: Techniques for Building Images | 117 | ||
| 2D Encoding | 117 | ||
| 3D Encoding | 119 | ||
| Fast and Alternative k-space Tranversal | 119 | ||
| Parallel Imaging | 119 | ||
| Pulse Sequences | 119 | ||
| Variations on a Spin Echo | 119 | ||
| Basic Two-Dimensional Spin-Echo Sequence | 119 | ||
| Multi-Spin Echo | 120 | ||
| Fast Spin Echo (FSE) or Turbo Spin Echo (TSE) or Rapid Acquisition with Relaxation Enhancement (RARE) | 120 | ||
| Single-Shot Fast Spin Echo (SS-FSE) or Half-Fourier Acquired Single-Shot Turbo Spin Echo (HASTE) | 122 | ||
| Inversion Recovery | 122 | ||
| Spin-Echo Echo Planar Imaging | 122 | ||
| Variations on a Gradient Echo/Field Echo | 123 | ||
| Basic Two-Dimensional Gradient-Echo Sequence | 123 | ||
| Three-Dimensional Gradient Echo | 124 | ||
| Magnetisation Prepared Rapid Acquisition Gradient Echo (MP-RAGE) or Turbo-FLASH or Inversion Recovery-Prepared Fast Spoiled Gradient-Recalled Echo | 125 | ||
| Gradient-Echo Echo Planar Imaging | 125 | ||
| Instrumentation | 125 | ||
| Magnets | 126 | ||
| Gradients | 127 | ||
| Radiofrequency | 127 | ||
| Computers | 128 | ||
| Physical Parameters That Provide Contrast | 128 | ||
| Proton Density | 129 | ||
| T1 (Longitudinal Relaxation Time or Spin–Lattice Relaxation Time) | 129 | ||
| T2 (Transverse Relaxation Time or Spin–Spin Relaxation Time) | 130 | ||
| T2* and Endogenous Susceptibility | 130 | ||
| Exogenous Contrast Agents | 130 | ||
| Chemical Shift | 132 | ||
| Proton Spectroscopy | 132 | ||
| Water/Fat Imaging | 133 | ||
| Flow | 133 | ||
| Time-of-Flight MRA | 133 | ||
| Phase Contrast MRA | 134 | ||
| Contrast-Enhanced MRA | 134 | ||
| Non-Contrast-Enhanced MRA (Fresh Blood Imaging) | 135 | ||
| Non-Contrast-Enhanced MRA (Balanced Steady-State Free Precession) | 136 | ||
| Perfusion (Microvascular Flow) | 136 | ||
| Diffusion | 137 | ||
| Safety Considerations | 138 | ||
| Static Magnetic Field | 138 | ||
| Time-Varying Magnetic Field Gradients | 138 | ||
| Radiofrequency Field | 139 | ||
| Conclusion | 139 | ||
| Further Reading | 139 | ||
| Online-only References | 140 | ||
| 6 Radionuclide and Hybrid Imaging | 141 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 141 | ||
| Introduction and General Principles | 141 | ||
| Basic Physics | 142 | ||
| Structure of the Atom | 142 | ||
| Radioactivity | 143 | ||
| Alpha Radiation | 144 | ||
| Beta Radiation | 144 | ||
| Positron Emission | 145 | ||
| X and Gamma Radiation | 145 | ||
| Definitions | 145 | ||
| Reactions that Produce X and Gamma Radiation | 145 | ||
| Interaction of X and Gamma Radiation with Matter | 145 | ||
| The Gamma Camera | 146 | ||
| Detection System | 146 | ||
| Collimators | 147 | ||
| Temporal Resolution | 148 | ||
| Techniques of Image Acquisition and Processing | 148 | ||
| Gamma Camera Limitations | 148 | ||
| Principles of Emission Tomography (PET and SPECT) | 149 | ||
| Tomographic Reconstruction | 150 | ||
| SPECT Design and Characteristics | 150 | ||
| PET Design and Characteristics | 151 | ||
| Hybrid Systems: SPECT-CT, PET-CT and PET-MRI | 152 | ||
| Quantification and Image Processing | 154 | ||
| General Processing | 154 | ||
| Quantification | 154 | ||
| Image Registration | 155 | ||
| Image Interpretation | 155 | ||
| Non-Imaging Applications | 156 | ||
| Radiopharmaceuticals | 157 | ||
| Further Reading | 160 | ||
| Online-only References | 161 | ||
| 7 Functional, Physiological and Molecular Imaging | 162 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 162 | ||
| Physiological Imaging with Contrast Media | 163 | ||
| Why Use Kinetic Modelling? | 163 | ||
| Contrast Agent Pharmacokinetics | 163 | ||
| Measurement of Tracer Concentration | 163 | ||
| Modelling and Mathematical Approaches | 164 | ||
| Perfusion | 164 | ||
| Wash-in Studies | 164 | ||
| Wash-out Studies | 165 | ||
| Bolus Passage | 165 | ||
| Fractional Vascular Volume | 165 | ||
| Direct and Indirect Indices of Permeability | 165 | ||
| Other Functional Indices | 166 | ||
| Summary | 166 | ||
| Principles of Molecular Imaging | 166 | ||
| Molecular Imaging and Hypoxia Inducible Factor-1 | 167 | ||
| Direct Molecular Imaging | 168 | ||
| Surrogate Molecular Imaging | 168 | ||
| Indirect Molecular Imaging | 169 | ||
| Comparison of Molecular Imaging Strategies | 170 | ||
| Molecular Imaging and Biotechnology | 170 | ||
| Applications of Molecular Imaging | 170 | ||
| Combined Physiological and Molecular Imaging | 171 | ||
| Summary | 171 | ||
| Appendices | 171 | ||
| Appendix 1 | 171 | ||
| Appendix 2 | 172 | ||
| Appendix 3 | 172 | ||
| Appendix 4 | 172 | ||
| Appendix 5 | 172 | ||
| Further Reading | 173 | ||
| Online-only References | 174 | ||
| B The Chest and Cardiovascular System | 176 | ||
| 8 Techniques in Thoracic Imaging | 178 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 178 | ||
| Chest Radiography | 178 | ||
| Equipment Considerations | 178 | ||
| Additional Radiographic Views | 179 | ||
| Portable Chest Radiography | 179 | ||
| Novel Radiographic Techniques | 179 | ||
| Computed Tomography of the Thorax | 180 | ||
| Dual-Energy CT | 181 | ||
| Dose Considerations | 182 | ||
| Intravenous Contrast Medium Enhancement and Timing of CT Data Acquisition | 185 | ||
| Window Settings | 185 | ||
| High-Resolution Computed Tomography | 186 | ||
| Ultrasound | 187 | ||
| Endoscopic and Endobronchial Ultrasound | 188 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 188 | ||
| Ventilation–Perfusion Scintigraphy | 189 | ||
| Further Reading | 190 | ||
| Online-only References | 191 | ||
| 9 The Normal Chest | 193 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 193 | ||
| The Lungs | 193 | ||
| The Central Airways | 196 | ||
| The Lungs Beyond the Hila | 197 | ||
| The Hila | 199 | ||
| The Mediastinum | 202 | ||
| Computed Tomography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 203 | ||
| Radiographic Appearances | 209 | ||
| Junction Lines | 209 | ||
| Right Mediastinum above the Azygos Vein | 209 | ||
| Left Mediastinum above the Aortic Arch | 211 | ||
| Trachea and Retrotracheal Area in the Lateral View | 211 | ||
| Supra-aortic Mediastinum on the Lateral View | 211 | ||
| Right Middle Mediastinal Border below the Azygos Arch | 212 | ||
| Left Cardiac Border below the Aortic Arch | 212 | ||
| Paraspinal Lines | 212 | ||
| Retrosternal Line | 213 | ||
| The Diaphragm | 213 | ||
| Further Reading | 214 | ||
| Online-only References | 215 | ||
| 10 The Chest Wall, Pleura, Diaphragm and Intervention | 216 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 216 | ||
| The Chest Wall | 216 | ||
| Soft Tissues | 216 | ||
| Breasts | 216 | ||
| Muscles | 216 | ||
| Soft-Tissue Calcification | 216 | ||
| Subcutaneous Emphysema | 217 | ||
| Soft-Tissue Tumours | 217 | ||
| Bony Structures | 218 | ||
| Ribs | 218 | ||
| Sternum | 218 | ||
| Clavicles | 219 | ||
| Spine | 220 | ||
| The Pleura | 220 | ||
| Pleural Effusion | 220 | ||
| Imaging Pleural Effusion | 220 | ||
| Chest Radiograph | 220 | ||
| Free Pleural Fluid. | 220 | ||
| Loculated (Encysted, Encapsulated) Pleural Fluid. | 222 | ||
| Pleural Effusion in the Supine Patient. | 223 | ||
| Ultrasound | 223 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 224 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 224 | ||
| Some Specific Pleural Effusions | 224 | ||
| Exudates and Transudates | 224 | ||
| Bronchopleural Fistula | 225 | ||
| Chylothorax | 225 | ||
| Haemothorax | 225 | ||
| Pneumothorax | 225 | ||
| Primary Spontaneous Pneumothorax | 225 | ||
| Secondary Spontaneous Pneumothorax | 226 | ||
| Diagnosis | 226 | ||
| Typical Signs | 226 | ||
| Atypical Signs | 227 | ||
| Complications | 227 | ||
| Haemopneumothorax | 227 | ||
| Tension Pneumothorax | 227 | ||
| Pyopneumothorax | 228 | ||
| Adhesions | 228 | ||
| Re-expansion Oedema | 228 | ||
| Pleural Thickening and Fibrothorax | 228 | ||
| Pleural Calcification | 230 | ||
| Pleural Tumours | 230 | ||
| Localised Pleural Tumours | 230 | ||
| Diffuse Pleural Tumours | 231 | ||
| Intervention | 231 | ||
| Chest Wall Intervention | 232 | ||
| Pleural Intervention | 232 | ||
| Pleural Aspiration. | 232 | ||
| Chest Drains. | 233 | ||
| Pleural Biopsy. | 233 | ||
| The Diaphragm | 234 | ||
| Level | 235 | ||
| Eventration | 235 | ||
| Movement and Paralysis | 236 | ||
| Diaphragmatic Hernias | 237 | ||
| Diaphragmatic Trauma | 238 | ||
| Neoplasms of the Diaphragm | 240 | ||
| Further Reading | 240 | ||
| Online-only References | 241 | ||
| 11 The Mediastinum, Including the Pericardium | 242 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 242 | ||
| Mediastinal Diseases | 242 | ||
| Mediastinal Masses | 242 | ||
| Incidence | 242 | ||
| Imaging Techniques | 242 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 242 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 242 | ||
| Ultrasound | 243 | ||
| Radionuclide Examinations | 244 | ||
| Approach to Mediastinal Masses | 244 | ||
| Localise to the Mediastinum | 244 | ||
| Localise within the Mediastinum | 244 | ||
| Characterise on CT or MR | 244 | ||
| Thyroid Masses | 244 | ||
| Parathyroid Masses | 245 | ||
| Thymic Tumours | 245 | ||
| Thymomas | 245 | ||
| Thymic Carcinoma | 249 | ||
| Thymic Neuroendocrine Tumour (Thymic Carcinoid) | 249 | ||
| Thymolipomas | 250 | ||
| Lymphofollicular Thymic Hyperplasia and Rebound Thymic Hyperplasia | 250 | ||
| Thymic Cyst | 250 | ||
| Germ-Cell Tumours of the Mediastinum | 250 | ||
| Teratomas | 251 | ||
| Seminoma | 252 | ||
| Non-Seminomatous Germ-Cell Tumours | 252 | ||
| Mediastinal Lymphadenopathy | 254 | ||
| Malignant Lymphoma and Leukaemia | 254 | ||
| Lymph Node Calcification | 255 | ||
| Low-Attenuation Nodes | 255 | ||
| Enhancing Lymph Nodes | 255 | ||
| Lymph Node Enlargement | 256 | ||
| Sarcoidosis. | 256 | ||
| Tuberculosis and Histoplasmosis. | 256 | ||
| Metastatic Carcinoma. | 257 | ||
| Reactive Hyperplasia. | 257 | ||
| Thoracic Lymphadenopathy in AIDS. | 257 | ||
| Foregut Duplication Cysts | 257 | ||
| Bronchogenic Cysts | 257 | ||
| Oesophageal Duplication Cysts | 257 | ||
| Neurenteric Cysts | 258 | ||
| Mediastinal Pancreatic Pseudocyst | 260 | ||
| Neurogenic Tumours | 260 | ||
| Peripheral Nerve Sheath Tumours | 260 | ||
| Sympathetic Ganglion Tumours | 261 | ||
| Mediastinal Paragangliomas | 262 | ||
| Lateral Thoracic Meningocele | 263 | ||
| Extramedullary Haematopoiesis | 263 | ||
| Mesenchymal Tumours and Tumour-Like Conditions | 264 | ||
| Lymphangiomas (Cystic Hygromas) | 264 | ||
| Haemangiomas | 264 | ||
| Fatty Lesions in the Mediastinum | 264 | ||
| Mediastinal Lipomatosis | 265 | ||
| Fatty Tumours of the Mediastinum | 265 | ||
| Fat-Containing Hernias | 265 | ||
| Other Mediastinal Lesions | 265 | ||
| Acute Mediastinitis | 265 | ||
| Fibrosing Mediastinitis | 266 | ||
| Mediastinal Haemorrhage | 268 | ||
| Pneumomediastinum | 268 | ||
| Pericardium | 270 | ||
| Imaging Pericardial Disease | 271 | ||
| Developmental Anomalies | 271 | ||
| Congenital Absence of the Pericardium | 271 | ||
| Pericardial Cysts and Diverticula | 271 | ||
| Acquired Pericardial Disease | 272 | ||
| Pericardial Effusion | 272 | ||
| Cardiac Tamponade | 273 | ||
| Pericarditis | 274 | ||
| Constrictive Pericarditis | 275 | ||
| Pericardial Neoplasms | 275 | ||
| Acknowledgement | 278 | ||
| Further Reading | 278 | ||
| Online-only References | 279 | ||
| 12 Pulmonary Infection in Adults | 282 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 282 | ||
| Types of Pneumonias | 282 | ||
| Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP) | 282 | ||
| Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia (HAP) | 282 | ||
| Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia (VAP) | 282 | ||
| Health Care-Associated Pneumonia (HCAP) | 282 | ||
| Clinical Utility and Limitations of Chest Radiography and CT | 282 | ||
| Patterns of Pulmonary Infection | 283 | ||
| Complications of Pneumonia | 285 | ||
| Integrating Clinical and Imaging Findings | 286 | ||
| Lobar Pneumonia | 286 | ||
| Most Common Organisms | 286 | ||
| Streptococcus pneumoniae. | 286 | ||
| Klebsiella. | 287 | ||
| Legionella sp. | 287 | ||
| Chlamydia. | 287 | ||
| Moraxella catarrhalis. | 288 | ||
| Immunocompromised Host | 288 | ||
| Nocardia sp. | 288 | ||
| Actinomyces sp. | 288 | ||
| Endemic in Certain Geographic Areas | 289 | ||
| Coxiella burnetii (Rickettsial Pneumonia). | 289 | ||
| Francisella tularensis. | 289 | ||
| Bronchopneumonia | 289 | ||
| Most Common Organisms | 289 | ||
| Staphylococcus aureus. | 289 | ||
| Escherichia coli. | 289 | ||
| Pseudomonas aeruginosa. | 289 | ||
| Haemophilus influenzae. | 290 | ||
| Atypical Pneumonia | 290 | ||
| Mycoplasma pneumoniae. | 290 | ||
| Viral | 290 | ||
| Influenza A. | 290 | ||
| Adenovirus. | 290 | ||
| Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV). | 291 | ||
| Epstein–Barr Virus (EBV). | 291 | ||
| Varicella-Zoster Virus. | 292 | ||
| Herpes Simplex Virus Type 1 (HSV-1). | 292 | ||
| Hantaviruses. | 292 | ||
| Cytomegalovirus (CMV). | 293 | ||
| New Emerging Viruses | 293 | ||
| Human Metapneumovirus (hMPV). | 293 | ||
| Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus. | 293 | ||
| Avian Flu (H5N1). | 293 | ||
| Swine Influenza (H1N1). | 294 | ||
| Changing Spectrum of HIV Infections: 30 Years Later | 294 | ||
| Mycobacterium tuberculosis | 295 | ||
| Primary Tuberculosis | 295 | ||
| Reactivation and Reinfection Tuberculosis | 296 | ||
| Pulmonary Non-Tuberculous Mycobacteria (NTMB) | 297 | ||
| Fungal Infection | 297 | ||
| Aspergillus Infection. | 297 | ||
| Candidiasis. | 298 | ||
| Pneumocystis jiroveci. | 299 | ||
| Mucormycosis. | 299 | ||
| Cryptococcosis. | 299 | ||
| Histoplasmosis. | 300 | ||
| Coccidioidomycosis. | 300 | ||
| Paracoccidioidomycosis (South American Blastomycosis). | 300 | ||
| North American Blastomycosis. | 301 | ||
| Parasitic Infections | 301 | ||
| Protozoa | 301 | ||
| Amoebiasis | 301 | ||
| Nematodes | 301 | ||
| Dirofilariasis | 301 | ||
| Cestodes | 302 | ||
| Echinococcosis (Hydatid Disease) | 302 | ||
| Trematodes | 302 | ||
| Paragonimiasis | 302 | ||
| Further Reading | 302 | ||
| Online-only References | 303 | ||
| 13 irway Disease and Chronic Airway Obstruction | 305 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 305 | ||
| Introduction | 305 | ||
| Tracheal Disorders | 305 | ||
| Post-Traumatic Strictures | 305 | ||
| Infectious Tracheobronchitis | 305 | ||
| Primary Malignant Neoplasms | 308 | ||
| Secondary Malignant Neoplasms | 310 | ||
| Benign Neoplasms | 310 | ||
| ANCA-Associated Granulomatous Vasculitis | 310 | ||
| Relapsing Polychondritis | 311 | ||
| Tracheobronchial Amyloidosis | 311 | ||
| Sarcoidosis | 311 | ||
| Inflammatory Bowel Disease | 311 | ||
| Tracheobronchopathia Osteochondroplastica | 313 | ||
| Sabre-Sheath Trachea | 313 | ||
| Tracheobronchomegaly (Mounier–Kuhn Syndrome) | 313 | ||
| Tracheobronchomalacia | 313 | ||
| Tracheobronchial Fistula and Dehiscence | 313 | ||
| Bronchiectasis | 317 | ||
| Radiographic Findings | 317 | ||
| CT Findings | 318 | ||
| Accuracy of CT | 321 | ||
| Cystic Fibrosis | 321 | ||
| Allergic Bronchopulmonary Aspergillosis (ABPA) | 322 | ||
| Dyskinetic Cilia Syndrome | 323 | ||
| Broncholithiasis | 324 | ||
| Bronchiolitis | 324 | ||
| Infective Bronchiolitis | 324 | ||
| Inflammatory (Non-Infective) Bronchiolitis | 324 | ||
| Obliterative (Constrictive) Bronchiolitis | 324 | ||
| Pathological Features | 324 | ||
| Radiological Findings | 325 | ||
| CT Assessment of Air Trapping | 326 | ||
| Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) | 326 | ||
| Pathological Findings | 327 | ||
| Inflammatory Changes in the Airways in COPD | 327 | ||
| Emphysema | 327 | ||
| Radiographic Findings | 327 | ||
| CT Findings | 329 | ||
| Small Airway Disease | 329 | ||
| Emphysema | 330 | ||
| Centrilobular Emphysema (CLE). | 330 | ||
| Panlobular or Panacinar Emphysema (PLE). | 330 | ||
| Paraseptal Emphysema (PSE). | 331 | ||
| Bullae. | 331 | ||
| Emphysema Associated with Interstitial Pneumonias. | 331 | ||
| Large Airway Disease | 332 | ||
| CT Quantitative Analysis of Extent of Disease | 332 | ||
| Asthma | 333 | ||
| Radiographic Findings | 333 | ||
| CT Findings | 333 | ||
| Further Reading | 334 | ||
| Online-only References | 336 | ||
| 14 Pulmonary Lobar Collapse: | 338 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 338 | ||
| Mechanisms and Causes of Lobar Collapse | 338 | ||
| Radiographic Considerations | 338 | ||
| Direct Signs of Volume Loss | 338 | ||
| Indirect Signs of Volume Loss | 339 | ||
| Ancillary Features of Lobar Collapse | 341 | ||
| Computed Tomography of Lobar Collapse | 342 | ||
| Technique | 342 | ||
| Utility | 343 | ||
| Potential Pitfalls | 344 | ||
| Other Imaging Techniques in Lobar Collapse | 344 | ||
| Patterns of Lobar Collapse | 345 | ||
| Right Upper Lobe Collapse | 345 | ||
| Left Upper Lobe Collapse | 347 | ||
| Right Middle Lobe Collapse | 347 | ||
| Right and Left Lower Lobe Collapse | 348 | ||
| Whole Lung Collapse | 350 | ||
| Combinations of Lobar Collapse | 350 | ||
| Further Reading | 352 | ||
| Online-only References | 353 | ||
| 15 Pulmonary Neoplasms | 354 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 354 | ||
| Bronchogenic Carcinoma | 354 | ||
| Histopathology | 354 | ||
| Genetic Factors | 354 | ||
| Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) | 354 | ||
| K-Ras | 355 | ||
| ALK | 355 | ||
| Lung Cancer and Other Environmental Factors | 355 | ||
| Smoking | 355 | ||
| Passive Smoking | 355 | ||
| General Environmental Pollutants | 355 | ||
| Asbestos | 355 | ||
| Radon | 355 | ||
| Lung Cancer Screening | 355 | ||
| Chest Radiographic Screening | 355 | ||
| CT Screening | 356 | ||
| Radiation Dose Considerations | 357 | ||
| The Future of Screening | 357 | ||
| Pulmonary Nodules | 358 | ||
| Management of Small Pulmonary Nodules | 358 | ||
| Nodule Size | 358 | ||
| Location, Shape and Morphology | 358 | ||
| Nodule Contour | 358 | ||
| Nodule Density | 359 | ||
| Ground-Glass Nodules | 359 | ||
| Other Forms of Nodule Assessment | 360 | ||
| Nodule Follow-Up | 360 | ||
| Nodule Enhancement | 360 | ||
| PET/CT | 361 | ||
| Tissue Sampling | 361 | ||
| Lung Cancer Staging—the 7Th Edition of the TNM Staging System for Lung Cancer | 362 | ||
| Additional Pulmonary Nodules in the Presence of Lung Cancer | 363 | ||
| N Descriptors | 363 | ||
| M Descriptors | 364 | ||
| Small Cell Lung Cancer | 364 | ||
| Bronchopulmonary Carcinoid Tumour | 364 | ||
| Summary | 366 | ||
| Imaging Protocols for Lung Cancer Staging | 366 | ||
| The Current Standards of CT Technology | 366 | ||
| Imaging Features of Bronchogenic Carcinoma | 366 | ||
| Peripheral Tumours | 367 | ||
| Tumour Shape and Margins | 367 | ||
| Cavitation | 367 | ||
| Calcification | 367 | ||
| Other Findings | 368 | ||
| Central Tumours | 368 | ||
| Collapse/Consolidation in Association with Central Tumours | 369 | ||
| Staging Intrathoracic Spread of Bronchial Carcinoma | 370 | ||
| Hilar Enlargement | 370 | ||
| Mediastinal Invasion | 370 | ||
| Chest Wall Invasion | 371 | ||
| Pleural Involvement | 374 | ||
| Summary | 374 | ||
| Extrathoracic Staging of Lung Cancer | 374 | ||
| Pulmonary Sarcoma and Other Primary Malignant Neoplasms | 374 | ||
| Benign Pulmonary Tumours | 375 | ||
| Hamartoma | 375 | ||
| Other Benign Pulmonary Neoplasms | 376 | ||
| Leiomyoma | 376 | ||
| Plasma Cell Granuloma | 376 | ||
| Sclerosing Haemangioma | 376 | ||
| Squamous Papillomas | 376 | ||
| Benign Lymphoproliferative Disorders | 377 | ||
| Lymphocytic Interstitial Pneumonia | 377 | ||
| Follicular Bronchiolitis | 377 | ||
| Malignant Lymphoproliferative Disorders | 377 | ||
| Lymphoma | 377 | ||
| Other Findings in Pulmonary Lymphoma | 377 | ||
| Leukaemia | 379 | ||
| Metastases | 379 | ||
| Lymphangitic Carcinomatosis | 380 | ||
| Unusual Patterns of Metastatic Cancer | 381 | ||
| Endobronchial Metastases | 381 | ||
| Miliary Metastases | 381 | ||
| Tumour Emboli | 381 | ||
| Further Reading | 381 | ||
| Online-only References | 382 | ||
| 16 High-Resolution Computed Tomography of Interstitial and Occupational Lung Disease | 385 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 385 | ||
| High-Resolution Computed Tomography Patterns of Diffuse Lung Disease | 385 | ||
| Reticular Pattern | 385 | ||
| Nodular Pattern | 386 | ||
| Ground-Glass Pattern | 386 | ||
| Mosaic Attenuation Pattern | 386 | ||
| Idiopathic Interstitial Pneumonias | 386 | ||
| Usual Interstitial Pneumonia/Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis | 386 | ||
| Classic HRCT Findings | 388 | ||
| Non-Specific Interstitial Pneumonia | 388 | ||
| Classic HRCT Findings | 389 | ||
| Cryptogenic Organising Pneumonia | 389 | ||
| Respiratory Bronchiolitis–Interstitial Lung Disease and Desquamative Interstitial Pneumonia | 389 | ||
| e9780702061288v2 | 1211 | ||
| Front cover | 1211 | ||
| Half title page | 1212 | ||
| Grainger & Allison’s Diagnostic Radiology | 1214 | ||
| Copyright page | 1215 | ||
| Table of Contents | 1216 | ||
| Preface | 1220 | ||
| List of Section Editors | 1221 | ||
| List of Contributors | 1222 | ||
| D The Musculoskeletal System | 1232 | ||
| 45 Imaging Techniques and Fundamental Observations for the Musculoskeletal System | 1234 | ||
| Chapter Outline | 1234 | ||
| Introduction | 1234 | ||
| Imaging Techniques Available | 1234 | ||
| Radiography | 1234 | ||
| Benefits | 1234 | ||
| Disadvantages | 1234 | ||
| Advances and Variations | 1235 | ||
| Stress Views. | 1235 | ||
| Fluoroscopy. | 1235 | ||
| Arthrography. | 1235 | ||
| Tomosynthesis. | 1236 | ||
| Ultrasound (US) | 1236 | ||
| Benefits | 1237 | ||
| Disadvantages | 1237 | ||
| Advances and Variations | 1237 | ||
| Elastography. | 1237 | ||
| Contrast-enhanced US. | 1238 | ||
| Computed Tomography (CT) | 1239 |