BOOK
Diabetes in Cardiovascular Disease: A Companion to Braunwald's Heart Disease E-Book
Darren K McGuire | Nikolaus Marx
(2014)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Diabetes in Cardiovascular Disease is a current, expert resource focusing on the complex challenges of providing cardiovascular care to patients with diabetes. Designed as a companion to Braunwald’s Heart Disease, this interdisciplinary medical reference book bridges the gap between the cardiology and endocrinology communities of scientists and care providers, and highlights the emerging scientific and clinical topics that are relevant for cardiologists, diabetologists/endocrinologists, and the extended diabetes care team.
- Access essential coverage of basic and clinical sciences , complemented by an expanded focus on epidemiology, behavioral sciences, health policy, and disparities in health care.
- Take advantage of a format that follows that of the well-known and internationally recognized Braunwald’s Heart Disease.
- Review the best available clinical data and pragmatic recommendations for the prevention and management of cardiovascular complications of diabetes; national/societal intervention strategies to curb the growing prevalence of diabetes; and the current pathophysiological understanding of cardiovascular comorbidities in patients with diabetes.
- Consult this title on your favorite e-reader, conduct rapid searches, and adjust font sizes for optimal readability.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | Cover | ||
| Inside Front Cover | ES2 | ||
| Diabetes Incardiovascular disease: A Companion to Braunwald’s Heart Disease | iii | ||
| Copyright | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Contributors | vii | ||
| Foreword | xi | ||
| Preface | xiii | ||
| Acknowledgments | xv | ||
| Contents | xvii | ||
| Part I: Diabetes Mellitus | 1 | ||
| Chapter 1: Definition and Epidemiology of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus | 1 | ||
| Type 2 Diabetes-Definitions and Outcomes | 1 | ||
| Global Burden of Diabetes | 3 | ||
| Causal Underpinnings of Diabetes | 4 | ||
| Genes, Epigenetics, and Gene-Environment Interactions | 4 | ||
| Overweight and Obesity and Associated Lifestyle Behaviors | 5 | ||
| Other Risk Factors for Diabetes | 6 | ||
| The Future of Diabetes Research | 6 | ||
| Summary | 7 | ||
| References | 7 | ||
| Chapter 2: Insulin Resistance | 10 | ||
| Genetic Factors | 10 | ||
| Insulin Resistance | 10 | ||
| Insulin Signaling and Cellular Mechanisms of Insulin Resistance | 12 | ||
| The Insulin Receptor, Insulin Receptor Substrates, and PKB/AKT Proteins | 13 | ||
| Glucose Transport | 14 | ||
| The Role of the Adipocyte and Obesity in Type 2 Diabetes | 14 | ||
| Tissue- and Organ-Specific Contribution to Insulin Resistance | 16 | ||
| Muscle | 16 | ||
| Adipose Tissue | 17 | ||
| Liver | 17 | ||
| Brain | 18 | ||
| Beta Cell Dysfunction in Type 2 Diabetes | 19 | ||
| The Role of Insulin Secretion and the Beta Cell in Type 2 Diabetes | 19 | ||
| Pulsatility | 19 | ||
| Glucose-Dependent Insulin Secretion | 19 | ||
| Proinsulin-to-Insulin Ratio | 19 | ||
| Incretin Hormones and Type 2 Diabetes | 20 | ||
| Beta Cell Mass | 20 | ||
| Glucose Toxicity | 20 | ||
| Lipotoxicity | 20 | ||
| Summary | 21 | ||
| References | 21 | ||
| Chapter 3: Type 1 Diabetes | 24 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 24 | ||
| Autoimmunity | 24 | ||
| Loss of Tolerance | 25 | ||
| Autoantigens | 26 | ||
| Insulin | 26 | ||
| Glutamic Acid Decarboxylase | 27 | ||
| Insulinoma-Associated Protein 2 | 27 | ||
| ZnT8 | 27 | ||
| Islet-Specific Glucose-6-Phosphatase Catalytic Subunit-Related Protein | 27 | ||
| Chromogranin A | 27 | ||
| Adaptive Immune Response | 27 | ||
| T Cell Response | 27 | ||
| Cytokines | 28 | ||
| Antibody Response | 28 | ||
| Innate Immune System Response | 28 | ||
| Etiology | 29 | ||
| Genetics | 29 | ||
| HLA Genes | 29 | ||
| Non-HLA Genes | 30 | ||
| Insulin Gene | 30 | ||
| Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte-Associated Protein 4 Gene | 30 | ||
| Protein Tyrosine Phosphatase Nonreceptor Type 22 Gene | 30 | ||
| Interferon Induced with Helicase C Domain 1 Gene | 30 | ||
| Interleukin 2 Receptor Alpha Subunit Gene | 31 | ||
| Epigenetics | 31 | ||
| Environmental Factors | 31 | ||
| Dietary Factors | 31 | ||
| Infectious Factors | 32 | ||
| Other Environmental Factors | 33 | ||
| Summary | 33 | ||
| References | 33 | ||
| Chapter 4: The Metabolic Syndrome | 37 | ||
| Association between Metabolic Syndrome and Cardiovascular Disease in the Population | 37 | ||
| Associations between Metabolic Syndrome and Intermediate Markers of Cardiovascular Disease | 38 | ||
| Cardiovascular Diseases and Metabolic Syndrome in Patients with Abnormal Glucose Tolerance | 39 | ||
| Common Soil for Metabolic Syndrome and Cardiovascular Disease? | 40 | ||
| Metabolic Syndrome as Guide for Patient-Centered Treatment | 41 | ||
| References | 42 | ||
| Chapter 5: Lifestyle Interventions for the Prevention of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus | 44 | ||
| The Global Epidemic of Type 2 Diabetes: An Overview | 44 | ||
| Evidence for Sustainable Type 2 Diabetes Prevention | 45 | ||
| The Elements of Type 2 Diabetes Prevention | 46 | ||
| Identifying People at Risk | 46 | ||
| Physical Activity | 47 | ||
| Nutritional Aspects | 48 | ||
| Nutritional Recommendations | 48 | ||
| The Right Intervention for the Person at Risk | 48 | ||
| Supporting Behavior Change | 48 | ||
| Recommendations for Type 2 Diabetes Prevention Practice | 50 | ||
| Contents of the Type 2 Diabetes Prevention Toolkit | 50 | ||
| Intervention Cost and Scarce Resources | 50 | ||
| Improving Effectiveness in Type 2 Diabetes Diabetes Prevention Practice | 52 | ||
| Prevention Managers | 52 | ||
| Moving Diabetes Prevention into Practice | 53 | ||
| Steps in Development of a Prevention Program | 53 | ||
| Basic Science in Diabetes Prevention | 53 | ||
| Efficacy in Diabetes Prevention | 53 | ||
| Effectiveness in Diabetes Prevention | 53 | ||
| Efficiency of Diabetes Prevention | 54 | ||
| Availability of Diabetes Prevention | 54 | ||
| Distribution of Diabetes Prevention | 54 | ||
| National Initiatives | 54 | ||
| Fulfilling the Development of a National Diabetes Prevention Program | 55 | ||
| Summary | 55 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 55 | ||
| References | 55 | ||
| Chapter 6: Pharmacologic and Surgical Interventions That Prevent or Worsen Type 2 Diabetes | 57 | ||
| Cardiovascular Pharmacologic Treatment that Influences Glucose Metabolism and the Development of Diabetes | 58 | ||
| Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors and Angiotensin Receptor Blockers | 58 | ||
| Beta Blockers | 58 | ||
| Thiazide Diuretics | 61 | ||
| Calcium Channel Blockers | 61 | ||
| Niacin | 62 | ||
| Statins | 62 | ||
| Ezetimibe and Bile Acid Sequestrants | 63 | ||
| Fibrates | 63 | ||
| Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein | 63 | ||
| Digoxin | 63 | ||
| Noncardiovascular Pharmacologic Treatment that Influences Glucose Metabolism and the Development of Diabetes | 63 | ||
| Thiazolidinediones | 63 | ||
| Rosiglitazone | 63 | ||
| Pioglitazone | 63 | ||
| Metformin | 64 | ||
| Acarbose | 64 | ||
| Antiobesity Agents | 64 | ||
| Antipsychotic Medication | 65 | ||
| Erythromycin | 65 | ||
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus Treatment | 65 | ||
| Estrogen | 65 | ||
| Antineoplasic Agents | 66 | ||
| Invasive Treatment to Prevent or Reverse Diabetes | 66 | ||
| Bariatric Surgery | 66 | ||
| Nonsurgical Duodenal Exclusion | 67 | ||
| Summary | 67 | ||
| References | 68 | ||
| Part II: Diabetes and Atherosclerosis | 73 | ||
| Chapter 7: Epidemiology of Coronary and Peripheral Atherosclerosis in Diabetes | 73 | ||
| Prevalence of Impaired Glucose Metabolism in Patients with Manifest Atherosclerosis | 73 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus and Subclinical Atherosclerosis | 74 | ||
| Clinical Manifestations of Atherosclerosis in Prediabetes, Metabolic Syndrome, and Type 2 Diabetes | 76 | ||
| Coronary Heart Disease Risk of Patients with Prediabetes | 76 | ||
| Coronary Heart Disease Risk of Patients with Metabolic Syndrome | 77 | ||
| Coronary Heart Disease Risk of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes (Diabetes as a Coronary Heart Disease Equivalent) | 79 | ||
| Short-Term and Long-Term Prognosis after Acute Myocardial Infarction in Patients with Pathologic Glucose Metabolism and aft... | 83 | ||
| Peripheral Arterial Disease and Diabetes | 84 | ||
| Diabetes and Coronary Heart Disease in Women | 84 | ||
| Diabetes and Atherosclerotic Complications: Geographic and Ethnic Differences | 85 | ||
| References | 85 | ||
| Chapter 8: Pathology of Diabetic Atherosclerosis | 87 | ||
| Plaque Morphology and Inflammation in Diabetic Atherosclerosis | 87 | ||
| Coronary and Carotid Artery Disease | 87 | ||
| Coronary Atherosclerosis in Sudden Death | 88 | ||
| Acute Coronary Thrombosis | 91 | ||
| Diffuse Coronary Atherosclerosis | 91 | ||
| Coronary Arterial Remodeling | 93 | ||
| Hemorrhage and Angiogenesis | 93 | ||
| Coronary Calcification | 95 | ||
| Mechanisms of Accelerated Atherosclerosis in Diabetes | 95 | ||
| Summary | 97 | ||
| References | 97 | ||
| Chapter 9: Vascular Biology of Atherosclerosis in Patients with Diabetes | 99 | ||
| Diabetes and Accelerated Atherosclerosis | 99 | ||
| Scope and Complexity of the Problem | 99 | ||
| Diabetes and Atherosclerosis: What Is the Role of Hyperglycemia? | 99 | ||
| Polyol Pathway | 100 | ||
| Hexosamine Pathway | 102 | ||
| Protein Kinase C | 102 | ||
| Oxidative Stress | 102 | ||
| Glycation: Receptor-Dependent and Independent Mechanisms in Diabetic Atherosclerosis | 103 | ||
| Receptor-Independent Pathways | 104 | ||
| Receptor-Dependent Pathways | 104 | ||
| Additional Mechanisms of Diabetic Atherosclerosis | 105 | ||
| Diabetes and Impaired Regression of Atherosclerosis | 106 | ||
| Insulin Resistance, Hyperinsulinemia, and Accelerated Atherosclerosis | 107 | ||
| Scope and Complexity of the Problem | 107 | ||
| What Are the Roles of Insulin Resistance and Hyperinsulinemia in Atherosclerosis? | 107 | ||
| Endothelial Cells and Insulin Receptor Signaling | 107 | ||
| Vascular Smooth Muscle Cells and Insulin Receptor Signaling | 108 | ||
| Macrophages and Insulin Receptor Signaling | 108 | ||
| The Effect of Hyperinsulinemia on Atherosclerosis | 108 | ||
| Summary | 108 | ||
| References | 109 | ||
| Chapter 10: Vascular Biology of Atherosclerosis in Patients with Diabetes | 111 | ||
| Overview | 111 | ||
| Diabetic Dyslipidemia | 111 | ||
| Diabetes: A Prothrombotic State | 113 | ||
| Altered Platelet Function | 113 | ||
| Increased Coagulation Factors | 114 | ||
| Von Willebrand Factor and Fibrinogen | 115 | ||
| Changes in Endogenous Anticoagulants | 115 | ||
| Impaired Fibrinolysis | 115 | ||
| Endothelial Function and Dysfunction in Diabetes | 116 | ||
| Endothelial Adhesion and Inflammation | 119 | ||
| Hemodynamic Forces | 120 | ||
| Inflammation: a Unifying Hypothesis of Diabetes and Atherosclerosis? | 120 | ||
| Monocyte and Macrophages | 121 | ||
| Lymphocytes | 122 | ||
| Vascular Smooth Muscle | 122 | ||
| Inflammation as a Therapeutic Target in Diabetic Atherosclerosis? | 122 | ||
| Summary | 124 | ||
| References | 124 | ||
| Chapter 11: Type 1 Diabetes and Associated Cardiovascular Risk and Disease | 127 | ||
| History | 127 | ||
| Magnitude of the Clinical Problem of Cardiovascular Disease in Type 1 Diabetes | 127 | ||
| Epidemiology of Type 1 Diabetes | 127 | ||
| Rates of Cardiovascular Disease in Type 1 Diabetes | 128 | ||
| Specific Considerations for Cardiovascular Disease in Type 1 Diabetes: Age and Comparison with Type 2 Diabetes | 128 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease Pathophysiology in Type 1 Diabetes | 129 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Type 1 Diabetes | 129 | ||
| Modifiable Risk Factors: ABCs | 129 | ||
| A: A1c (or Hemoglobin A1c and Glucose Control) | 129 | ||
| B: Blood Pressure or Hypertension | 130 | ||
| C: Cholesterol (Dyslipidemia) | 131 | ||
| Other Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors | 133 | ||
| Kidney Disease | 133 | ||
| Obesity and Insulin Resistance | 134 | ||
| Inflammation | 134 | ||
| Lifestyle Modification: Smoking, Diet, and Exercise | 134 | ||
| Nonmodifiable Risk Factors | 135 | ||
| Summary | 135 | ||
| References | 135 | ||
| Part III: Management of Coronary Heart Disease Risk and Disease in Patients with Diabetes | 139 | ||
| Chapter 12: Effect of Lifestyle Interventions on Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Patients with Diabetes | 139 | ||
| Weight Management and Energy Balance | 140 | ||
| Dietary Intake and Cardiometabolic Risk | 142 | ||
| Smoking Cessation | 142 | ||
| Exercise and Physical Activity in the Prevention and Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus | 143 | ||
| Walking: ``Exercise is Medicine´´ for Patients with Diabetes | 144 | ||
| Cardioprotective Effects of Regular Exercise | 144 | ||
| Physical Activity, Exercise Programming, and Prescription | 144 | ||
| Type of Exercise | 144 | ||
| The Rule of 2 and 3 Miles per Hour (mph) | 145 | ||
| Resistance Training | 145 | ||
| Lifestyle Physical Activity | 146 | ||
| Intensity and Duration | 146 | ||
| Frequency | 147 | ||
| The Structured Exercise Session: Special Considerations for Exercisers with Diabetes | 148 | ||
| Psychosocial Interventions to Support Lifestyle Change | 148 | ||
| Readiness for Change | 148 | ||
| Stages of the Transtheoretical Model | 149 | ||
| Precontemplation | 149 | ||
| Contemplation | 149 | ||
| Preparation | 149 | ||
| Action | 149 | ||
| Maintenance | 149 | ||
| Relapse | 149 | ||
| Exit | 149 | ||
| Assessment of Stages of Change | 149 | ||
| Motivational Interviewing | 150 | ||
| ``Spirit´´ of Motivational Interviewing | 150 | ||
| Collaboration | 150 | ||
| Evocation | 150 | ||
| Autonomy | 150 | ||
| Principles of Motivational Interviewing | 151 | ||
| Express Empathy | 151 | ||
| Support Self-Efficacy | 151 | ||
| Roll with Resistance | 151 | ||
| Develop Discrepancy | 151 | ||
| Interviewing Skills and Strategies | 151 | ||
| Using Change Talk in Motivational Interviewing | 152 | ||
| Evidenced-Based Mind-Body Therapies | 152 | ||
| Summary | 152 | ||
| References | 153 | ||
| Chapter 13: Effect of Glucose Management on Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Patients with Diabetes | 155 | ||
| Changing Epidemiology of Diabetes and Coronary Heart Disease | 155 | ||
| Epidemiologic Relationship of Glucose with Coronary Heart Disease | 155 | ||
| Trials of Glucose-Lowering Interventions | 157 | ||
| Trials of Glucose-Lowering Interventions in Prediabetes and Early Diabetes | 159 | ||
| The ``How´´ of Glucose Lowering: the Evidence for Specific Medications and Medication Classes | 161 | ||
| Metformin | 162 | ||
| Sulfonylureas | 163 | ||
| Thiazolidinediones | 163 | ||
| Insulin | 164 | ||
| Incretin-Based Therapies | 165 | ||
| Other Agents | 165 | ||
| Risks Associated with Antihyperglycemic Medications | 167 | ||
| Hypoglycemia | 167 | ||
| Other Adverse Effects of Medications | 168 | ||
| Implications for Clinical Practice | 168 | ||
| References | 169 | ||
| Chapter 14: Effect of Blood Pressure Management on Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes | 171 | ||
| Epidemiologic Associations Between Blood Pressure and Coronary Heart Disease in People with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus | 171 | ||
| Efficacy of Lifestyle Interventions on Blood Pressure Levels and Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Patients with Type 2 Diabet... | 171 | ||
| Efficacy and Safety of Blood Pressure-Lowering Drugs on Coronary Heart Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus | 172 | ||
| Overall Efficacy-Placebo-Controlled Trials | 172 | ||
| Comparative Efficacy of Blood Pressure-Lowering Drugs | 174 | ||
| More versus Less Blood Pressure Lowering and Target Blood Pressure Levels | 176 | ||
| Legacy Effects of Blood Pressure Lowering | 177 | ||
| New Drugs | 177 | ||
| Efficacy and Safety of Renal Sympathetic Denervation | 178 | ||
| Summary | 178 | ||
| References | 179 | ||
| Chapter 15: Effect of Lipid Management on Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Patients with Diabetes | 181 | ||
| Overview | 181 | ||
| Coronary Heart Disease Risk Among Patients with Diabetes and Dyslipidemia | 181 | ||
| Lipid Management Strategies to Reduce Cardiovascular Risk | 188 | ||
| Therapeutic Lifestyle Changes | 188 | ||
| Drugs Targeting Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol | 188 | ||
| 3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl-Coenzyme a (HMG-CoA) Reductase Inhibitors: the Statins | 189 | ||
| Patients with Diabetes in Key Statin Trials | 189 | ||
| Meta-analyses of Statin Efficacy Among Diabetes Mellitus Patients | 189 | ||
| Statin Use, Glucose Homeostasis, and New-Onset Diabetes | 191 | ||
| Ezetimibe | 191 | ||
| Drugs Targeting High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol | 191 | ||
| Niacin | 192 | ||
| Niacin Clinical Trial Results | 193 | ||
| Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein Inhibition | 193 | ||
| Drugs Targeting Triglycerides | 194 | ||
| Fibric Acid Derivatives (Fibrates) | 194 | ||
| General Limitations of the Available Fibrate Data | 194 | ||
| Omega-3 Fatty Acids | 194 | ||
| Other Trials with Lipid Intervention in Diabetes Mellitus Patients | 195 | ||
| Clinical Practice Guidelines for Lipid-lowering Therapies | 196 | ||
| 2011 European Society of Cardiology and European Atherosclerosis Society Guidelines for the Management of Dyslipidemias | 196 | ||
| 2013 European Society of Cardiology and European Association for the Study of Diabetes Guidelines on Diabetes, Prediabetes,... | 196 | ||
| 2013 American College of Cardiology and American Heart Association Guidelines for the Treatment of Blood Cholesterol to Red... | 197 | ||
| Reconciling Discordance in the Guidelines | 197 | ||
| Unmet Clinical Needs and Future Directions | 197 | ||
| Summary | 199 | ||
| References | 199 | ||
| Chapter 16: Effect of Antiplatelet Therapy on Coronary Heart Disease Risk in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus | 203 | ||
| Aspirin | 203 | ||
| Aspirin in Primary Prevention | 203 | ||
| Aspirin in Secondary Prevention | 206 | ||
| P2Y12 Receptor Antagonists | 207 | ||
| Ticlopidine | 207 | ||
| Clopidogrel | 207 | ||
| Clopidogrel Response Variability | 210 | ||
| Prasugrel | 210 | ||
| Ticagrelor | 212 | ||
| Other Antiplatelet Medications | 213 | ||
| Cilostazol | 213 | ||
| Dipyridamole | 213 | ||
| Protease-Activated Receptor 1 Antagonists | 213 | ||
| Vorapaxar | 213 | ||
| Atopaxar | 214 | ||
| Future Directions | 214 | ||
| References | 214 | ||
| Chapter 17: Role of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention in Patients with Diabetes | 217 | ||
| Specific Characteristics of Diabetes-Associated Atherothrombosis | 217 | ||
| Methodologic Considerations Related to Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Trials in Diabetes | 217 | ||
| Conservative Strategy | 218 | ||
| Percutaneous Coronary Intervention | 219 | ||
| General Considerations | 219 | ||
| Bare-Metal Stents versus Drug-Eluting Stents | 220 | ||
| Drug-Eluting Stents | 221 | ||
| Percutaneous Coronary Intervention versus Bypass Surgery | 221 | ||
| Adjunctive Pharmacologic Treatment | 224 | ||
| Future Strategies to Improve Percutaneous Coronary Intervention Results | 225 | ||
| Summary | 225 | ||
| References | 225 | ||
| Chapter 18: Role of Coronary Artery Bypass Surgery in Diabetes and Perioperative Glucose Management | 228 | ||
| Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery in Patients with Diabetes | 228 | ||
| Risk Profiles and Comorbidities | 228 | ||
| Early Outcomes | 228 | ||
| Late Outcomes | 229 | ||
| Graft Patency | 229 | ||
| Revascularization Strategies for Patients with Diabetes | 229 | ||
| Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery versus Percutaneous Transluminal Coronary Angioplasty | 229 | ||
| The BARI Trial | 229 | ||
| Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery versus Percutaneous Coronary Intervention with Bare Metal Stents | 231 | ||
| Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery versus Percutaneous Coronary Intervention with Drug-Eluting Stents | 231 | ||
| BARI 2D | 231 | ||
| The Optimal Strategy for Coronary Revascularization in Patients with Diabetes and Multivessel Coronary Artery Disease (Fig.... | 232 | ||
| Hyperglycemia in Patients with Diabetes Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery | 233 | ||
| Detrimental Effects of Hyperglycemia in the Diabetic Myocardium and its Reversal with Insulin | 233 | ||
| Effect of Hyperglycemia on Morbidity and Mortality in Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Patients | 233 | ||
| Effects of Insulin Infusions in the Diabetic Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery Patient | 233 | ||
| What is the Optimal Target for Serum Glucose in the Diabetic Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery Patient-Aggressive or Mod... | 234 | ||
| Management of Hyperglycemia in the Perioperative Period | 235 | ||
| Glycemic Control after the Intensive Care Unit | 236 | ||
| References | 237 | ||
| Part IV: Epidemiology and Management of Acute Coronary Syndromes in Patients with Diabetes | 239 | ||
| Chapter 19: Epidemiology of Acute Coronary Syndromes in Patients with Diabetes | 239 | ||
| Global Burden of Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes | 239 | ||
| Diabetes in Randomized Controlled Trials and Registry Studies of Acute Coronary Syndromes | 243 | ||
| Diabetes in Randomized Controlled Trials of Acute Coronary Syndromes | 243 | ||
| Diabetes in Registry Studies of Acute Coronary Syndromes | 245 | ||
| Undiagnosed Diabetes in Patients With Cardiovascular Disease and Acute Coronary Syndrome Events | 247 | ||
| Summary | 249 | ||
| References | 249 | ||
| Chapter 20: Hyperglycemia and Acute Coronary Syndromes | 251 | ||
| Definition of Hyperglycemia During Acute Coronary Syndrome | 251 | ||
| Prevalence of Elevated Glucose Levels in Acute Coronary Syndrome | 251 | ||
| The Relationship Between Glucose Levels and Mortality in Acute Coronary Syndrome | 252 | ||
| Dynamic Changes in Glucose Levels During Acute Coronary Syndrome and Mortality | 253 | ||
| Clinical Trials of Glucose Control in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome | 253 | ||
| The Relationship Between Glucose Variability and Patient Outcomes During Acute Coronary Syndrome | 258 | ||
| The Prognostic Importance of Hypoglycemia in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome | 258 | ||
| Current Patterns of Glucose Control in Acute Coronary Syndrome | 259 | ||
| Summary and Recommendations | 259 | ||
| References | 260 | ||
| Chapter 21: Antiplatelet and Antithrombotic Therapy in Diabetic Patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome | 262 | ||
| Platelet Aggregation | 262 | ||
| Platelet Inhibition | 262 | ||
| Aspirin | 262 | ||
| ADP Receptor Blockers | 263 | ||
| Clopidogrel | 263 | ||
| Prasugrel | 266 | ||
| Ticagrelor | 266 | ||
| Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa Inhibitors | 267 | ||
| Coagulation Inhibition | 268 | ||
| Unfractionated Heparin and Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin | 268 | ||
| Fondaparinux | 268 | ||
| Bivalirudin | 269 | ||
| Summary | 269 | ||
| References | 269 | ||
| Chapter 22: Role of Primary Invasive Strategy and Revascularization in Diabetic Patients with Acute Coronary Syndromes | 271 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus as a Major Risk Factor in Acute Coronary Syndromes | 271 | ||
| Benefits of a Primary Invasive Strategy | 272 | ||
| ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction | 272 | ||
| Non-ST-Segment Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes | 272 | ||
| Timing of Intervention | 273 | ||
| ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction | 273 | ||
| Non-ST-Segment Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes | 273 | ||
| Revascularization Strategy | 275 | ||
| ST-Segment Elevation Myocardial Infarction | 275 | ||
| Non-ST-Segment Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes | 275 | ||
| Procedural Aspects of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention and Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting | 276 | ||
| Completeness of Revascularization | 276 | ||
| Staged Revascularization for Multivessel Coronary Disease | 278 | ||
| Percutaneous Coronary Intervention with Drug-Eluting Stents | 278 | ||
| Summary | 278 | ||
| References | 279 | ||
| Part V: Heart Failure in Diabetes | 281 | ||
| Chapter 23: Epidemiology of Heart Failure in Diabetes | 281 | ||
| Association of Diabetes and Incident Heart Failure | 281 | ||
| Prevalence of Heart Failure and Cardiac Dysfunction in People with Diabetes | 283 | ||
| Prevalence of Diabetes in Patients with Heart Failure | 284 | ||
| Incident Diabetes in Patients with Heart Failure | 285 | ||
| Diabetes and Adverse Outcomes in Heart Failure Patients | 285 | ||
| Heart Failure Hospitalization | 285 | ||
| Mortality | 286 | ||
| Special Population: Women | 286 | ||
| Etiology of Heart Failure | 287 | ||
| Heart Failure with Preserved Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction | 288 | ||
| Summary | 288 | ||
| References | 288 | ||
| Chapter 24: Diabetic Cardiomyopathy | 290 | ||
| Scope of the Problem | 290 | ||
| Epidemiological Evidence | 290 | ||
| Pathophysiology and Molecular Mechanisms | 291 | ||
| Hyperglycemia and Glucotoxicity | 292 | ||
| Hyperlipidemia and Lipotoxicity | 293 | ||
| Hyperinsulinemia, Insulin Resistance, and Altered Substrate Metabolism | 293 | ||
| Abnormalities in Intracellular Ca2+ Homeostasis | 293 | ||
| Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Oxidative Stress | 294 | ||
| Dysregulation of Renin-Angiotensin System | 295 | ||
| Emerging Modulators of Insulin Signaling and Cardiac Function | 295 | ||
| Adipokines | 295 | ||
| Leptin | 295 | ||
| Adiponectin | 295 | ||
| Resistin | 295 | ||
| Unfolded Protein Response | 295 | ||
| Autophagy | 296 | ||
| Current Treatment Strategies and Potential Therapeutic Targets | 297 | ||
| Forkhead Transcription Factors | 297 | ||
| Mammalian Target of Rapamycin | 298 | ||
| MicroRNAs | 298 | ||
| Pim-1 | 299 | ||
| Conclusions and Perspective | 299 | ||
| References | 300 | ||
| Chapter 25: Prevention of Heart Failure in Patients with Diabetes | 302 | ||
| Strategies For Prevention of Heart Failure | 302 | ||
| Identifying Precursors of Symptomatic Heart Failure | 302 | ||
| Stage A Heart Failure | 303 | ||
| Stage B Heart Failure | 303 | ||
| Screening Strategies for Prevention of Heart Failure | 304 | ||
| Screening with Clinical Risk Factors | 304 | ||
| Screening with Biomarkers | 305 | ||
| Natriuretic Peptides | 305 | ||
| Cardiac Troponin | 305 | ||
| Screening with Imaging | 306 | ||
| Strategies for Risk Modification | 306 | ||
| Coronary Heart Disease and Diabetes | 307 | ||
| Post-Myocardial Infarction Prevention of Heart Failure | 307 | ||
| Hypertension | 308 | ||
| Glucose Lowering and Prevention of Heart Failure | 309 | ||
| Impact of Glycemic Control (See also Chapter 13) | 309 | ||
| Antihyperglycemic Agents and Risk of Heart Failure | 309 | ||
| Thiazolidinediones | 309 | ||
| Dipeptidyl Peptidase 4 Inhibitors | 310 | ||
| Insulin | 310 | ||
| Challenges in Prevention of Heart Failure and Future Directions | 311 | ||
| References | 311 | ||
| Chapter 26: Treatment of Heart Failure in Diabetes: Systolic Dysfunction, Diastolic Dysfunction, and Post-Acute Coronary ... | 313 | ||
| Treatment of Heart Failure in Patients with Diabetes Mellitus | 313 | ||
| Pharmacologic Therapy | 313 | ||
| Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors | 313 | ||
| Angiotensin Receptor Blockers | 314 | ||
| Direct Renin Inhibitors | 317 | ||
| Beta Blockers | 318 | ||
| Mineralocorticoid Receptor Antagonists | 319 | ||
| Nitrates and Hydralazine | 320 | ||
| Ivabradine | 320 | ||
| Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids | 320 | ||
| Digoxin | 321 | ||
| Diuretics | 321 | ||
| Devices and Surgery | 321 | ||
| Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators | 321 | ||
| Cardiac Resynchronization Therapy | 321 | ||
| Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting | 322 | ||
| Ventricular Assist Devices and Transplantation | 323 | ||
| Exercise Prescription | 323 | ||
| Treatment of Diabetes in Patients with Heart Failure | 323 | ||
| Metformin | 323 | ||
| Sulfonylureas | 324 | ||
| Thiazolidinediones | 324 | ||
| Insulin | 324 | ||
| Modulators of the Incretin System | 325 | ||
| Other Glucose-Lowering Medications | 325 | ||
| Intensity of Glucose-Lowering | 326 | ||
| Summary | 326 | ||
| References | 326 | ||
| Part VI: Other Diabetes-related Cardiovascular Considerations | 329 | ||
| Chapter 27: Peripheral Artery Disease in Diabetes | 329 | ||
| Epidemiology and Prognosis of Peripheral Artery Disease and Diabetes-Overlapping Epidemics | 329 | ||
| Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis, and Natural History of Peripheral Artery Disease in Diabetes | 330 | ||
| Risk Factor Identification, Lifestyle Modification, and Pharmacotherapy | 332 | ||
| Lowering Cardiovascular Morbidity and Mortality | 332 | ||
| Dyslipidemia | 332 | ||
| Smoking Cessation | 333 | ||
| Hypertension | 333 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus | 334 | ||
| Obesity and Weight Reduction | 334 | ||
| Antiplatelet Therapy | 334 | ||
| Renin Angiotensin System Antagonism in Peripheral Artery Disease | 335 | ||
| Beta-adrenergic Blockers in Peripheral Artery Disease | 335 | ||
| Therapy for the Treatment of Claudication | 336 | ||
| Pentoxifylline | 336 | ||
| Cilostazol | 336 | ||
| Other Pharmacologic Agents | 336 | ||
| Exercise | 336 | ||
| Revascularization | 337 | ||
| Endovascular Management | 338 | ||
| Surgical Management | 338 | ||
| Approach to the Treatment of Diabetic Patients with Peripheral Artery Disease | 338 | ||
| Summary and Conclusion | 339 | ||
| References | 339 | ||
| Chapter 28: Cerebrovascular Disease in Patients with Diabetes | 341 | ||
| Epidemiology of Stroke in Diabetes | 341 | ||
| Epidemiology of Stroke: General Observations and Time Trends | 341 | ||
| Diabetes and Other Risk Factors for Stroke | 342 | ||
| Comparison of Vascular Risk Factors Between Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease | 342 | ||
| Diabetes as a Stroke Risk Factor IN Younger Patients | 343 | ||
| Multiplicative Risk Increase by Additional Vascular Risk Factors | 343 | ||
| Stroke Risk in Prediabetes- and Diabetes-Associated Metabolic Risk Configurations (Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome, ... | 343 | ||
| Prediabetes (Impaired Fasting Glucose, Impaired Glucose Tolerance, Hemoglobin A1c) | 343 | ||
| Metabolic Risk Configurations (Insulin Resistance, Metabolic Syndrome, Adiposity) | 344 | ||
| Pathophysiology and Subtypes of Ischemic Stroke in Diabetes | 345 | ||
| Primary and Secondary Prevention of Stroke in Diabetes | 346 | ||
| Glucose Control | 346 | ||
| Management of Diabetes Associated Vascular Risk Factors | 346 | ||
| Hypertension | 347 | ||
| Lipids | 347 | ||
| Platelet Inhibition | 347 | ||
| Multifactor Risk Factor Management | 348 | ||
| Oral Anticoagulation in Atrial Fibrillation in Patients with Diabetes | 348 | ||
| Carotid Artery Interventions in Diabetes: Carotid Endarterectomy and Carotid Artery Stenting | 349 | ||
| Mechanical Revascularization of Severe Intracranial Arterial Stenosis | 350 | ||
| Hypoglycemia and Stroke | 351 | ||
| Diabetes and Acute Stroke-Poststroke Hyperglycemia | 351 | ||
| Epidemiology and Definition of Poststroke Hyperglycemia | 351 | ||
| Causes of Poststroke Hyperglycemia | 351 | ||
| Neurotoxicity in Poststroke Hyperglycemia | 352 | ||
| Poststroke Hyperglycemia as a Global Negative Outcome Predictor | 352 | ||
| Influence of Diabetes on Acute Stroke Treatments | 352 | ||
| Glucose-Lowering Treatment of Poststroke Hyperglycemia | 353 | ||
| Feasibility of Glycemic Control in Poststroke Hyperglycemia | 353 | ||
| Does Tight Glycemic Control Improve Outcome in Poststroke Hyperglycemia? | 354 | ||
| Diabetes as a Vascular Risk Factor for Cognitive Impairment and Dementia | 355 | ||
| Definition and Epidemiology | 355 | ||
| Clinical Studies | 355 | ||
| Brain Imaging Studies | 356 | ||
| Autopsy Studies | 356 | ||
| Prevention and Treatment of Diabetes-Related Dementia | 357 | ||
| The Role of Hypoglycemia on Cognitive Impairment and Dementia | 357 | ||
| Vascular and Degenerative Mechanisms in Diabetes-Related Dementia | 358 | ||
| Summary | 358 | ||
| References | 359 | ||
| Chapter 29: Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy | 361 | ||
| Pathophysiology of Vagosympathetic Imbalance | 361 | ||
| Role of Vagosympathetic Impairment in Insulin Resistance | 361 | ||
| Effects of Insulin and Glucagon-like Peptide 1 on Autonomic Activity | 361 | ||
| Vagosympathetic Imbalance and Hemodynamic Changes | 362 | ||
| Epidemiological Data | 362 | ||
| Prevalence and Correlates of Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy | 362 | ||
| Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy as a Predictor of Cardiovascular Morbidity and Mortality | 363 | ||
| Cardiovascular Disorders Associated with Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy | 363 | ||
| Silent Myocardial Ischemia | 363 | ||
| Hypertension | 363 | ||
| Left Ventricular Dysfunction | 363 | ||
| QT Interval Prolongation | 363 | ||
| Abnormal Circadian Blood Pressure Pattern | 364 | ||
| Exercise Intolerance | 364 | ||
| Arterial Stiffness | 364 | ||
| Detection of Subclinical Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy | 364 | ||
| Detection in Clinical Practice | 364 | ||
| Standard Tests | 364 | ||
| Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy Staging | 365 | ||
| Evaluation of Vagosympathetic Activity in Clinical Research | 365 | ||
| Clinical Context | 365 | ||
| Diagnosing Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy in Symptomatic Patients | 365 | ||
| Screening Asymptomatic Patients | 366 | ||
| Management of Cardiovascular Autonomic Neuropathy | 366 | ||
| Role of Glycemic Control | 366 | ||
| Management of Tachycardia and Orthostatic Hypotension | 367 | ||
| References | 367 | ||
| Chapter 30: Disparities in Diabetes Risk, Cardiovascular Consequences, and Care | 369 | ||
| Disparities in Diabetes Risk | 369 | ||
| Disparities in Cardiovascular Consequences | 369 | ||
| Diabetes Comorbidities in Racial and Ethnic Minorities | 369 | ||
| Diabetes Comorbidities in Women | 372 | ||
| Disparities in Access to Care | 372 | ||
| Sex Disparities in Access to Care | 373 | ||
| Ethnic Disparities in Access to Care | 373 | ||
| Age-Related Disparities in Access to Care | 374 | ||
| Identification, Screening, and Prevention in High-Risk Groups: Pre-Diabetes | 375 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 376 | ||
| References | 376 | ||
| Chapter 31: The Quality Chasm | 379 | ||
| Assessing the Quality of Care for Diabetes | 379 | ||
| Quality-of-Care Measures | 380 | ||
| Importance of the Health care Provider-Patient Interface in Achievement of High-Quality Care | 380 | ||
| Survey of Current Quality of Diabetes Care in the United States | 381 | ||
| Incentivization or Pay for Performance | 381 | ||
| Efforts to Improve Control Measures | 382 | ||
| Summary | 383 | ||
| References | 383 | ||
| Index | 385 | ||
| Inside Back Cover | ES3 |