BOOK
Physics in Nuclear Medicine E-Book
Simon R. Cherry | James A. Sorenson | Michael E. Phelps
(2012)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Physics in Nuclear Medicine - by Drs. Simon R. Cherry, James A. Sorenson, and Michael E. Phelps - provides current, comprehensive guidance on the physics underlying modern nuclear medicine and imaging using radioactively labeled tracers. This revised and updated fourth edition features a new full-color layout, as well as the latest information on instrumentation and technology. Stay current on crucial developments in hybrid imaging (PET/CT and SPECT/CT), and small animal imaging, and benefit from the new section on tracer kinetic modeling in neuroreceptor imaging. What’s more, you can reinforce your understanding with graphical animations online at www.expertconsult.com, along with the fully searchable text and calculation tools.
- Master the physics of nuclear medicine with thorough explanations of analytic equations and illustrative graphs to make them accessible.
- Discover the technologies used in state-of-the-art nuclear medicine imaging systems
- Fully grasp the process of emission computed tomography with advanced mathematical concepts presented in the appendices.
- Utilize the extensive data in the day-to-day practice of nuclear medicine practice and research.
Tap into the expertise of Dr. Simon Cherry, who contributes his cutting-edge knowledge in nuclear medicine instrumentation.
- Stay current on the latest developments in nuclear medicine technology and methods
- New sections to learn about hybrid imaging (PET/CT and SPECT/CT) and small animal imaging.
- View graphical animations online at www.expertconsult.com, where you can also access the fully searchable text and calculation tools.
- Get a better view of images and line art and find information more easily thanks to a brand-new, full-color layout.
The perfect reference or textbook to comprehensively review physics principles in nuclear medicine.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| Expert Consult pin page | IFC2 | ||
| Physics in Nuclear Medicine | i | ||
| Copyright Page | iv | ||
| Preface | v | ||
| Table Of Contents | vii | ||
| Animations, Calculators, and Graphing Tools | xvii | ||
| Animations | xvii | ||
| Calculators | xvii | ||
| Graphing Tools | xvii | ||
| 1 What Is Nuclear Medicine? | 1 | ||
| a. Fundamental Concepts | 1 | ||
| b. The Power of Nuclear Medicine | 1 | ||
| c. Historical Overview | 2 | ||
| d. Current Practice of Nuclear Medicine | 4 | ||
| e. The Role of Physics in Nuclear Medicine | 6 | ||
| References | 6 | ||
| Bibliography | 6 | ||
| For further details on the history of nuclear medicine, we recommend the following: | 6 | ||
| Recommended texts that cover clinical nuclear medicine in detail are the following: | 6 | ||
| 2 Basic Atomic and Nuclear Physics | 7 | ||
| A. Quantities and Units | 7 | ||
| 1. Types of Quantities and Units | 7 | ||
| 2. Mass and Energy Units | 7 | ||
| b. Radiation | 8 | ||
| c. Atoms | 9 | ||
| 1. Composition and Structure | 9 | ||
| 2. Electron Binding Energies and Energy Levels | 9 | ||
| 3. Atomic Emissions | 10 | ||
| d. The Nucleus | 13 | ||
| 1. Composition | 13 | ||
| 2. Terminology and Notation | 13 | ||
| 3. Nuclear Families | 14 | ||
| 4. Forces and Energy Levels within the Nucleus | 14 | ||
| 5. Nuclear Emissions | 15 | ||
| 6. Nuclear Binding Energy | 15 | ||
| 7. Characteristics of Stable Nuclei | 16 | ||
| References | 18 | ||
| Bibliography | 18 | ||
| Recommended texts for in-depth discussions of topics in atomic and nuclear physics are the following: | 18 | ||
| 3 Modes of Radioactive Decay | 19 | ||
| A. General Concepts | 19 | ||
| b. Chemistry and Radioactivity | 19 | ||
| c. Decay by β− Emission | 20 | ||
| D. Decay by (β−, γ ) Emission | 21 | ||
| e. Isomeric Transition and Internal Conversion | 22 | ||
| f. Electron Capture and (EC, γ ) Decay | 24 | ||
| g. Positron (β+) and (β+, γ ) Decay | 25 | ||
| h. Competitive β+ and Ec Decay | 26 | ||
| i. Decay by α Emission and by Nuclear Fission | 26 | ||
| j. Decay Modes and the Line of Stability | 28 | ||
| k. Sources of Information on Radionuclides | 28 | ||
| Reference | 30 | ||
| Bibliography | 30 | ||
| 4 Decay of Radioactivity | 31 | ||
| A. Activity | 31 | ||
| 1. The Decay Constant | 31 | ||
| 2. Definition and Units of Activity | 31 | ||
| b. Exponential Decay | 32 | ||
| 1. The Decay Factor | 32 | ||
| 2. Half-Life | 33 | ||
| 3. Average Lifetime | 34 | ||
| c. Methods for Determining Decay Factors | 34 | ||
| 1. Tables of Decay Factors | 34 | ||
| Example 4-1 | 34 | ||
| 5 Radionuclide and Radiopharmaceutical Production | 43 | ||
| A. Reactor-Produced Radionuclides | 43 | ||
| 1. Reactor Principles | 43 | ||
| 2. Fission Fragments | 44 | ||
| 3. Neutron Activation | 45 | ||
| b. Accelerator-Produced Radionuclides | 47 | ||
| 1. Charged-Particle Accelerators | 47 | ||
| 2. Cyclotron Principles | 47 | ||
| 3. Cyclotron-Produced Radionuclides | 49 | ||
| c. Radionuclide Generators | 50 | ||
| d. Equations For Radionuclide Production | 53 | ||
| 1. Activation Cross-Sections | 53 | ||
| 2. Activation Rates | 54 | ||
| Example 5-1 | 55 | ||
| 6 Interaction of Radiation with Matter | 63 | ||
| a. Interactions of Charged Particles with Matter | 63 | ||
| 1. Charged-Particle Interaction Mechanisms | 63 | ||
| 2. Collisional Versus Radiation Losses | 64 | ||
| Example 6-1 | 65 | ||
| Answer | 65 | ||
| 3. Charged-Particle Tracks | 66 | ||
| 4. Deposition of Energy Along a Charged-Particle Track | 67 | ||
| 5. The Cerenkov Effect | 68 | ||
| b. Charged-Particle Ranges | 70 | ||
| 1. Alpha Particles | 70 | ||
| Example 6-2 | 70 | ||
| Answer | 70 | ||
| Example 6-3 | 71 | ||
| 7 Radiation Detectors | 87 | ||
| a. Gas-Filled Detectors | 87 | ||
| 1. Basic Principles | 87 | ||
| 2. Ionization Chambers | 87 | ||
| 3. Proportional Counters | 91 | ||
| 4. Geiger-Müller Counters | 92 | ||
| b. Semiconductor Detectors | 96 | ||
| c. Scintillation Detectors | 97 | ||
| 1. Basic Principles | 97 | ||
| 2. Photomultiplier Tubes | 98 | ||
| 3. Photodiodes | 99 | ||
| 4. Inorganic Scintillators | 100 | ||
| 5. Considerations in Choosing an Inorganic Scintillator | 103 | ||
| Example 7-1 | 104 | ||
| Answer | 104 | ||
| 6. Organic Scintillators | 104 | ||
| Reference | 106 | ||
| Bibliography | 106 | ||
| A comprehensive reference for many different radiation detectors is the following: | 106 | ||
| A detailed reference for inorganic scintillator mechanisms, properties, growth, and applications is the following: | 106 | ||
| A detailed general reference for scintillation detectors is the following: | 106 | ||
| 8 Electronic Instrumentation for Radiation Detection Systems | 107 | ||
| a. Preamplifiers | 107 | ||
| B. Amplifiers | 110 | ||
| 1. Amplification and Pulse-Shaping Functions | 110 | ||
| 2. Resistor-Capacitor Shaping | 111 | ||
| 3. Baseline Shift and Pulse Pile-Up | 112 | ||
| C. Pulse-Height Analyzers | 113 | ||
| 1. Basic Functions | 113 | ||
| 2. Single-Channel Analyzers | 113 | ||
| 3. Timing Methods | 114 | ||
| 4. Multichannel Analyzers | 116 | ||
| D. Time-to-Amplitude Converters | 118 | ||
| E. Digital Counters and Rate Meters | 119 | ||
| 1. Scalers, Timers, and Counters | 119 | ||
| 2. Analog Rate Meters | 120 | ||
| F. Coincidence Units | 121 | ||
| G. High-Voltage Power Supplies | 122 | ||
| H. Nuclear Instrument Modules | 122 | ||
| I. Oscilloscopes | 123 | ||
| 1. Cathode Ray Tube | 123 | ||
| 2. Analog Oscilloscope | 124 | ||
| 3. Digital Oscilloscope | 124 | ||
| Bibliography | 124 | ||
| Basic nuclear electronics are discussed in the following: | 124 | ||
| 9 Nuclear Counting Statistics | 125 | ||
| a. Types of Measurement Error | 125 | ||
| B. Nuclear Counting Statistics | 126 | ||
| 1. The Poisson Distribution | 126 | ||
| Example 9-1 | 127 | ||
| Answer | 127 | ||
| 2. The Standard Deviation | 128 | ||
| 3. The Gaussian Distribution | 128 | ||
| Example 9-2 | 128 | ||
| Answer | 128 | ||
| C. Propagation of Errors | 128 | ||
| 1. Sums and Differences | 129 | ||
| 2. Constant Multipliers | 129 | ||
| 3. Products and Ratios | 129 | ||
| 4. More Complicated Combinations | 129 | ||
| Example 9-3 | 130 | ||
| 10 Pulse-Height Spectrometry | 141 | ||
| a. Basic Principles | 141 | ||
| B. Spectrometry with Nai(Tl) | 142 | ||
| 1. The Ideal Pulse-Height Spectrum | 142 | ||
| 2. The Actual Spectrum | 143 | ||
| 3. Effects of Detector Size | 145 | ||
| 4. Effects of Counting Rate | 146 | ||
| 5. General Effects of γ-Ray Energy | 147 | ||
| 6. Energy Linearity | 147 | ||
| 7. Energy Resolution | 148 | ||
| C. Spectrometry with Other Detectors | 151 | ||
| 1. Semiconductor Detector Spectrometers | 151 | ||
| 2. Liquid Scintillation Spectrometry | 152 | ||
| 3. Proportional Counter Spectrometers | 153 | ||
| References | 154 | ||
| Bibliography | 154 | ||
| Additional discussion of NaI(Tl) pulse-height spectrometry may be found in the following: | 154 | ||
| Spectrometry with Si(Li) and Ge(Li) semiconductor detectors is discussed in the following: | 154 | ||
| Spectrometry with room-temperature semiconductor detectors is discussed in the following: | 154 | ||
| A useful general reference for pulse-height spectrometry is the following: | 154 | ||
| 11 Problems in Radiation Detection and Measurement | 155 | ||
| a. Detection Efficiency | 155 | ||
| 1. Components of Detection Efficiency | 155 | ||
| 2. Geometric Efficiency | 156 | ||
| Example 11-1 | 156 | ||
| Answer | 156 | ||
| 3. Intrinsic Efficiency | 158 | ||
| 4. Energy-Selective Counting | 159 | ||
| 5. Some Complicating Factors | 160 | ||
| a. Nonuniform Detection Efficiency | 160 | ||
| b. Detection of Simultaneously Emitted Radiations in Coincidence | 162 | ||
| c. Attenuation and Scatter of Radiation Outside the Detector | 163 | ||
| 6. Calibration Sources | 164 | ||
| B. Problems in the Detection and Measurement of β Particles | 166 | ||
| C. Dead Time | 168 | ||
| 1. Causes of Dead Time | 168 | ||
| 2. Mathematical Models | 168 | ||
| Example 11-2 | 170 | ||
| Answer | 170 | ||
| 3. Window Fraction Effects | 170 | ||
| 4. Dead Time Correction Methods | 170 | ||
| d. Quality Assurance for Radiation Measurement Systems | 171 | ||
| References | 172 | ||
| 12 Counting Systems | 173 | ||
| a. NaI(Tl) Well Counter | 173 | ||
| 1. Detector Characteristics | 173 | ||
| 2. Detection Efficiency | 174 | ||
| 3. Sample Volume Effects | 175 | ||
| 4. Assay of Absolute Activity | 177 | ||
| 5. Shielding and Background | 177 | ||
| 6. Energy Calibration | 178 | ||
| 7. Multiple Radionuclide Source Counting | 178 | ||
| Example 12-1 | 179 | ||
| Answer | 179 | ||
| 8. Dead Time | 179 | ||
| 9. Automated Multiple-Sample Systems | 179 | ||
| 10. Applications | 182 | ||
| b. Counting with Conventional Nai(Tl) Detectors | 182 | ||
| 1. Large Sample Volumes | 182 | ||
| 2. Liquid and Gas Flow Counting | 182 | ||
| c. Liquid Scintillation Counters | 182 | ||
| 1. General Characteristics | 182 | ||
| 2. Pulse-Height Spectrometry | 184 | ||
| 3. Counting Vials | 184 | ||
| 4. Energy and Efficiency Calibration | 185 | ||
| 5. Quench Corrections | 185 | ||
| 6. Sample Preparation Techniques | 187 | ||
| 7. Cerenkov Counting | 188 | ||
| 8. Liquid and Gas Flow Counting | 188 | ||
| 9. Automated Multiple-Sample LS Counters | 188 | ||
| 10. Applications | 189 | ||
| d. Gas-Filled Detectors | 189 | ||
| 1. Dose Calibrators | 189 | ||
| 2. Gas Flow Counters | 190 | ||
| e. Semiconductor Detector Systems | 190 | ||
| 1. System Components | 190 | ||
| 2. Applications | 191 | ||
| f. In Vivo Counting Systems | 192 | ||
| 1. NaI(Tl) Probe Systems | 192 | ||
| 2. Miniature γ-Ray and β Probes for Surgical Use | 192 | ||
| 3. Whole-Body Counters | 194 | ||
| References | 194 | ||
| A detailed reference on in vitro counting systems is the following: | 194 | ||
| The design and application of miniature γ probes for surgical use are reviewed in detail in the following: | 194 | ||
| 13 The Gamma Camera: | 195 | ||
| a. General Concepts of Radionuclide Imaging | 195 | ||
| b. Basic Principles of the Gamma Camera | 196 | ||
| 1. System Components | 196 | ||
| 2. Detector System and Electronics | 197 | ||
| 3. Collimators | 201 | ||
| Example 13-1 | 203 | ||
| Answer | 203 | ||
| Example 13-2 | 204 | ||
| Answer | 204 | ||
| 4. Event Detection in a Gamma Camera | 204 | ||
| c. Types of Gamma Cameras and Their Clinical Uses | 206 | ||
| Reference | 208 | ||
| Bibliography | 208 | ||
| The principles of the gamma camera are discussed in greater detail in the following: | 208 | ||
| 14 The Gamma Camera: | 209 | ||
| a. Basic Performance Characteristics | 209 | ||
| 1. Intrinsic Spatial Resolution | 209 | ||
| 2. Detection Efficiency | 211 | ||
| 3. Energy Resolution | 211 | ||
| 4. Performance at High Counting Rates | 213 | ||
| b. Detector Limitations: Nonuniformity and Nonlinearity | 216 | ||
| 1. Image Nonlinearity | 216 | ||
| 2. Image Nonuniformity | 217 | ||
| 3. Nonuniformity Correction Techniques | 217 | ||
| 4. Gamma Camera Tuning | 219 | ||
| c. Design and Performance Characteristics of Parallel-Hole Collimators | 220 | ||
| 1. Basic Limitations in Collimator Performance | 220 | ||
| 2. Septal Thickness | 220 | ||
| Example 14-1 | 221 | ||
| Answer | 221 | ||
| 3. Geometry of Collimator Holes | 222 | ||
| Example 14-2 | 222 | ||
| Answer | 222 | ||
| Example 14-3 | 223 | ||
| Answer | 223 | ||
| 4. System Resolution | 225 | ||
| d. Performance Characteristics of Converging, Diverging, and Pinhole Collimators | 225 | ||
| e. Measurements of Gamma Camera Performance | 228 | ||
| 1. Intrinsic Resolution | 229 | ||
| 2. System Resolution | 229 | ||
| 3. Spatial Linearity | 229 | ||
| 4. Uniformity | 230 | ||
| 5. Counting Rate Performance | 230 | ||
| 6. Energy Resolution | 231 | ||
| 7. System Sensitivity | 231 | ||
| References | 231 | ||
| 15 Image Quality in Nuclear Medicine | 233 | ||
| a. Basic Methods for Characterizing and Evaluating Image Quality | 233 | ||
| b. Spatial Resolution | 233 | ||
| 1. Factors Affecting Spatial Resolution | 233 | ||
| 2. Methods for Evaluating Spatial Resolution | 234 | ||
| c. Contrast | 239 | ||
| Example 15-1 | 240 | ||
| Answer | 240 | ||
| d. Noise | 243 | ||
| 1. Types of Image Noise | 243 | ||
| 2. Random Noise and Contrast-to-Noise Ratio | 243 | ||
| Example 15-2 | 244 | ||
| 16 Tomographic Reconstruction in Nuclear Medicine | 253 | ||
| a. General Concepts, Notation, and Terminology | 254 | ||
| b. Backprojection and Fourier-Based Techniques | 256 | ||
| 1. Simple Backprojection | 256 | ||
| 2. Direct Fourier Transform Reconstruction | 258 | ||
| 3. Filtered Backprojection | 260 | ||
| 4. Multislice Imaging | 262 | ||
| c. Image Quality in Fourier Transform and Filtered Backprojection Techniques | 263 | ||
| 1. Effects of Sampling on Image Quality | 263 | ||
| Example 16-1 | 265 | ||
| Answer | 265 | ||
| 2. Sampling Coverage and Consistency Requirements | 266 | ||
| 3. Noise Propagation, Signal-to-Noise Ratio, and Contrast-to-Noise Ratio | 266 | ||
| Example 16-2 | 268 | ||
| 17 Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography | 279 | ||
| A. SPECT Systems | 279 | ||
| 1. Gamma Camera SPECT Systems | 279 | ||
| 2. SPECT Systems for Brain Imaging | 280 | ||
| 3. SPECT Systems for Cardiac Imaging | 281 | ||
| 4. SPECT Systems for Small-Animal Imaging | 283 | ||
| B. Practical Implementation of SPECT | 285 | ||
| 1. Attenuation Effects and Conjugate Counting | 287 | ||
| Example 17-1 | 293 | ||
| Answer | 293 | ||
| 2. Attenuation Correction | 293 | ||
| 3. Transmission Scans and Attenuation Maps | 294 | ||
| 4. Scatter Correction | 296 | ||
| 5. Partial-Volume Effects | 299 | ||
| C. Performance Characteristics of SPECT Systems | 299 | ||
| 1. Spatial Resolution | 301 | ||
| 2. Volume Sensitivity | 301 | ||
| 3. Other Measurements of Performance | 302 | ||
| 4. Quality Assurance in SPECT | 302 | ||
| D. Applications of SPECT | 303 | ||
| References | 306 | ||
| 18 Positron Emission Tomography | 307 | ||
| A. Basic Principles of Pet Imaging | 307 | ||
| 1. Annihilation Coincidence Detection | 307 | ||
| 2. Time-of-Flight PET | 309 | ||
| 3. Spatial Resolution: Detectors | 310 | ||
| 4. Spatial Resolution: Positron Physics | 312 | ||
| Example 18-1 | 316 | ||
| Answer | 316 | ||
| 5. Spatial Resolution: Depth-of-Interaction Effect | 316 | ||
| 6. Spatial Resolution: Sampling | 318 | ||
| 7. Spatial Resolution: Reconstruction Filters | 319 | ||
| 8. Sensitivity | 319 | ||
| 9. Event Types in Annihilation Coincidence Detection | 322 | ||
| B. Pet Detector and Scanner Designs | 324 | ||
| 1. Block Detectors | 324 | ||
| 2. Modified Block Detectors | 325 | ||
| 3. Whole-Body PET Systems | 326 | ||
| 4. Specialized PET Scanners | 330 | ||
| 5. Small-Animal PET Scanners | 331 | ||
| C. Data Acquisition for Pet | 332 | ||
| 1. Two-Dimensional Data Acquisition | 332 | ||
| 2. Three-Dimensional Data Acquisition | 332 | ||
| Example 18-2 | 334 | ||
| Answer | 334 | ||
| 3. Data Acquisition for Dynamic Studies and Whole-Body Scans | 335 | ||
| D. Data Corrections and Quantitative Aspects of Pet | 335 | ||
| 1. Normalization | 335 | ||
| 2. Correction for Random Coincidences | 336 | ||
| 3. Correction for Scattered Radiation | 337 | ||
| 4. Attenuation Correction | 338 | ||
| 5. Dead Time Correction | 339 | ||
| 6. Absolute Quantification of PET Images | 339 | ||
| E. Performance Characteristics of Pet Systems | 340 | ||
| F. Clinical and Research Applications of Pet | 341 | ||
| References | 342 | ||
| Bibliography | 343 | ||
| 19 Hybrid Imaging: | 345 | ||
| A. Motivation for Hybrid Systems | 345 | ||
| B. X-Ray Computed Tomography | 346 | ||
| 1. X-ray Tube | 346 | ||
| 2. X-ray Detectors | 347 | ||
| 3. X-ray CT Scanner | 348 | ||
| 4. CT Reconstruction | 348 | ||
| C. Spect/CT Systems | 350 | ||
| 1. Clinical SPECT/CT Scanners | 350 | ||
| 2. Small-Animal SPECT/CT Scanners | 352 | ||
| D. PET/CT | 354 | ||
| 1. Clinical PET/CT Scanners | 354 | ||
| 2. Small-Animal PET/CT Scanners | 356 | ||
| E. Attenuation and Scatter Correction Using CT | 356 | ||
| 1. Computing Attenuation Correction Factors from CT Scans | 357 | ||
| 2. Possible Sources of Artifacts for CT-Based Attenuation Correction | 358 | ||
| 3. Scatter Correction | 360 | ||
| F. Hybrid PET/MRI and Spect/MRI | 360 | ||
| References | 361 | ||
| Bibliography | 361 | ||
| The following is an informative general review on hybrid imaging: | 361 | ||
| 20 Digital Image Processing in Nuclear Medicine | 363 | ||
| A. Digital Images | 364 | ||
| 1. Basic Characteristics and Terminology | 364 | ||
| 2. Spatial Resolution and Matrix Size | 365 | ||
| Example 20-1 | 366 | ||
| Answer | 366 | ||
| 3. Image Display | 367 | ||
| 4. Acquisition Modes | 367 | ||
| B. Digital Image-Processing Techniques | 369 | ||
| 1. Image Visualization | 369 | ||
| 2. Regions and Volumes of Interest | 372 | ||
| 3. Time-Activity Curves | 373 | ||
| 4. Image Smoothing | 373 | ||
| 5. Edge Detection and Segmentation | 373 | ||
| 6. Co-Registration of Images | 375 | ||
| C. Processing Environment | 376 | ||
| References | 378 | ||
| BIBLIOGRAPHY | 378 | ||
| 21 Tracer Kinetic Modeling | 379 | ||
| A. Basic Concepts | 379 | ||
| B. Tracers and Compartments | 380 | ||
| 1. Definition of a Tracer | 380 | ||
| 2. Definition of a Compartment | 382 | ||
| 3. Distribution Volume and Partition Coefficient | 382 | ||
| Example 21-1 | 383 | ||
| Answer | 383 | ||
| 4. Flux | 383 | ||
| 5. Rate Constants | 384 | ||
| 6. Steady State | 385 | ||
| C. Tracer Delivery and Transport | 386 | ||
| 1. Blood Flow, Extraction, and Clearance | 386 | ||
| Example 21-2 | 388 | ||
| Answer | 388 | ||
| 2. Transport | 389 | ||
| D. Formulation of A Compartmental Model | 390 | ||
| E. Examples of Dynamic Imaging and Tracer Kinetic Models | 392 | ||
| 1. Cardiac Function and Ejection Fraction | 392 | ||
| Example 21-3 | 392 | ||
| Answer | 392 | ||
| 2. Blood Flow Models | 392 | ||
| 3. Blood Flow: Trapped Radiotracers | 393 | ||
| Example 21-4 | 394 | ||
| 22 Internal Radiation Dosimetry | 407 | ||
| A. Radiation Dose and Equivalent Dose: Quantities and Units | 407 | ||
| B. Calculation of Radiation Dose (MIRD Method) | 408 | ||
| 1. Basic Procedure and Some Practical Problems | 408 | ||
| 2. Cumulated Activity, | 409 | ||
| Example 22-1 | 410 | ||
| Answer | 410 | ||
| Example 22-2 | 410 | ||
| Answer | 411 | ||
| Example 22-3 | 412 | ||
| 23 Radiation Safety and Health Physics | 427 | ||
| A. Quantities and Units | 428 | ||
| 1. Dose-Modifying Factors | 428 | ||
| 2. Exposure and Air Kerma | 428 | ||
| B. Regulations Pertaining to the Use of Radionuclides | 431 | ||
| 1. Nuclear Regulatory Commission Licensing and Regulations | 431 | ||
| 2. Restricted and Unrestricted Areas | 431 | ||
| 3. Dose Limits | 431 | ||
| 4. Concentrations for Airborne Radioactivity in Restricted Areas | 432 | ||
| 5. Environmental Concentrations and Concentrations for Sewage Disposal | 432 | ||
| 6. Record-Keeping Requirements | 432 | ||
| 7. Recommendations of Advisory Bodies | 433 | ||
| C. Safe Handling of Radioactive Materials | 433 | ||
| 1. The ALARA Concept | 433 | ||
| 2. Reduction of Radiation Doses from External Sources | 434 | ||
| Example 23-1 | 435 | ||
| Answer | 435 | ||
| 3. Reduction of Radiation Doses from Internal Sources | 437 | ||
| 4. Laboratory Design | 438 | ||
| 5. Procedures for Handling Spills | 438 | ||
| D. Disposal of Radioactive Waste | 439 | ||
| E. Radiation Monitoring | 439 | ||
| 1. Survey Meters and Laboratory Monitors | 439 | ||
| 2. Personnel Dosimeters | 440 | ||
| 3. Wipe Testing | 441 | ||
| References | 441 | ||
| Bibliography | 441 | ||
| A detailed discussion of health physics and radiation protection techniques can be found in the following textbooks: | 441 | ||
| Regulatory documents can be found on the website of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission at http://www.nrc.gov [accessed October 14, 2011]. Relevant documents on this website include the following: | 441 | ||
| The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement website is at http://www.ncrp.com [accessed October 14, 2011]. Important NCRP publications in addition to those listed in the references are the following: | 441 | ||
| The International Atomic Energy Agency website is at www.iaea.org [accessed October 14, 2011] and has several publications relevant to nuclear medicine that can be downloaded from the website: For example: | 441 | ||
| International bodies providing information or recommendations regarding radiation dose: | 442 | ||
| The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation website is at www.unscear.org/ [accessed October 14, 2011). Two comprehensive publications of interest are: | 442 | ||
| appendix A Unit Conversions | 443 | ||
| appendix B Properties of the Naturally Occurring Elements | 445 | ||
| appendix C Decay Characteristics of Some Medically Important Radionuclides | 449 | ||
| appendix D Mass Attenuation Coefficients for Water, NaI(Tl), Bi4Ge3O12, Cd0.8Zn0.2Te, and Lead | 476 | ||
| appendix E Effective Dose Equivalent (mSv/MBq) and Radiation Absorbed Dose Estimates (mGy/MBq) to Adult Subjects from Selected Internally Administered Radiopharmaceuticals | 478 | ||
| appendix F The Fourier Transform | 481 | ||
| A. The FOURIER TRANSFORM: What It Represents | 481 | ||
| B. Calculating FOURIER TRANSFORMS | 481 | ||
| C. Some Properties of FOURIER TRANSFORMS | 483 | ||
| D. Some Examples of Fourier Transforms | 486 | ||
| References | 488 | ||
| appendix G Convolution | 489 | ||
| References | 492 | ||
| Index | 493 | ||
| A | 493 | ||
| B | 495 | ||
| C | 496 | ||
| D | 499 | ||
| E | 501 | ||
| F | 503 | ||
| G | 504 | ||
| H | 506 | ||
| I | 506 | ||
| J | 507 | ||
| K | 507 | ||
| L | 507 | ||
| M | 508 | ||
| N | 509 | ||
| O | 511 | ||
| P | 511 | ||
| Q | 515 | ||
| R | 515 | ||
| S | 518 | ||
| T | 521 | ||
| U | 523 | ||
| V | 523 | ||
| W | 523 | ||
| X | 523 | ||
| Z | 523 |