BOOK
Adler's Physiology of the Eye E-Book
Leonard A Levin | Siv F. E. Nilsson | James Ver Hoeve | Samuel Wu | Paul L. Kaufman | Albert Alm
(2011)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Drs. Paul L. Kaufman, Albert Alm, Leonard A Levin, Siv F. E. Nilsson, James Ver Hoeve, and Samuel Wu present the 11th Edition of the classic text Adler’s Physiology of the Eye, updated to enhance your understanding of ocular function. This full-color, user-friendly edition captures the latest molecular, genetic, and biochemical discoveries and offers you unparalleled knowledge and insight into the physiology of the eye and its structures. A new organization by function, rather than anatomy, helps you make a stronger connection between physiological principles and clinical practice; and more than 1,000 great new full-color illustrations help clarify complex concepts.
- Deepen your grasp of the physiological principles that underlie visual acuity, color vision, ocular circulation, the extraocular muscle, and much more.
- Glean the latest knowledge in the field, including the most recent molecular, genetic, and biochemical discoveries.
- Make a stronger connection between physiology and clinical practice with the aid of an enhanced clinical emphasis throughout, as well as a new organization by function rather than by anatomy.
- Better visualize all concepts by viewing 1,000 clear, full-color illustrations.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Adler's Physiology of the Eye, 11/e | i | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Table of Contents | v | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| List of Contributors | viii | ||
| Acknowledgements | xi | ||
| Dedication | xii | ||
| 1 Focusing of an image on the retina | 1 | ||
| 1 Optics | 1 | ||
| The young eye | 1 | ||
| Relevant anatomy | 1 | ||
| Axial length | 1 | ||
| Emmetropization | 2 | ||
| Retinal receptors | 3 | ||
| Neural processing | 3 | ||
| Relevant early physiology | 4 | ||
| Recognizing faces | 4 | ||
| Line orientation receptors | 5 | ||
| Monitoring other’s eye movements | 5 | ||
| Recognizing movement | 5 | ||
| Summary – social seeing | 6 | ||
| The image of the human adult eye | 6 | ||
| Tuned to visible light waves | 6 | ||
| Role of the cornea | 6 | ||
| Role of the crystalline lens | 7 | ||
| Accommodation | 8 | ||
| Role of the retina | 8 | ||
| Rhodopsin | 8 | ||
| Receptor size and spacing | 9 | ||
| Visual acuity testing | 9 | ||
| Chart luminance | 9 | ||
| Visual acuity as Log MAR | 10 | ||
| Visual acuity chart contrast | 10 | ||
| Contrast sensitivity testing | 10 | ||
| Definition and units | 12 | ||
| Contrast | 12 | ||
| Contrast sensitivity | 12 | ||
| Targets | 12 | ||
| Sine waves | 12 | ||
| Recording contrast sensitivity | 12 | ||
| Glare, tissue light scattering, and contrast sensitivity | 13 | ||
| Clinical conditions affecting glare and contrast sensitivity | 15 | ||
| Optical conditions | 15 | ||
| Corneal conditions | 15 | ||
| Corneal edema | 15 | ||
| Contact lens wear | 15 | ||
| Keratoconus | 15 | ||
| Nephrotic cystinosis | 15 | ||
| Penetrating keratoplasty | 15 | ||
| Refractive surgery | 15 | ||
| Cataracts and opacified posterior capsules | 15 | ||
| Modulation transfer function | 16 | ||
| Depth of focus | 16 | ||
| Optical aberrations | 17 | ||
| Light scattering | 17 | ||
| Natural defenses against light scattering | 19 | ||
| Chromatic aberrations | 20 | ||
| Spherical aberration | 20 | ||
| Light absorption | 21 | ||
| Summary – a compromise of eye function | 21 | ||
| The aging eye | 21 | ||
| Evolution of ocular components | 22 | ||
| Non-optical brain mechanisms that enhance the retinal image | 22 | ||
| Contrast enhancement | 22 | ||
| Edge sharpening | 22 | ||
| Vernier acuity | 23 | ||
| Removing distractions | 24 | ||
| Refractive errors | 24 | ||
| Prevalence | 24 | ||
| Myopia | 25 | ||
| Pathologic myopia | 25 | ||
| Physiologic, or school, myopia | 25 | ||
| Astigmatism | 25 | ||
| Presbyopia | 25 | ||
| Components of ametropia | 25 | ||
| References | 26 | ||
| 2 Optical Aberrations and Wavefront Sensing | 28 | ||
| Introduction | 28 | ||
| Optical aberrations | 28 | ||
| Wavefront optics | 28 | ||
| Optical limitations to vision | 30 | ||
| Aberrations | 31 | ||
| Chromatic aberrations | 31 | ||
| Monochromatic aberrations | 31 | ||
| Measuring optical aberrations | 32 | ||
| Aberrometry and wavefront sensing devices | 32 | ||
| Wavefront sensing devices | 34 | ||
| Correcting higher-order aberrations | 34 | ||
| Visual disturbances associated with HOA | 34 | ||
| Visual performance after correcting HOA | 35 | ||
| Factors which limit the benefit of HOA correction | 35 | ||
| Clinical applications of wavefront aberration correction | 37 | ||
| Corneal ablations | 37 | ||
| Correcting HOA with spectacles, contact lenses and intraocular lenses | 37 | ||
| References | 38 | ||
| 3 Accommodation | 40 | ||
| Introduction | 40 | ||
| Accommodation | 41 | ||
| Optics of the eye | 42 | ||
| The optical requirements for accommodation | 42 | ||
| Depth of field | 43 | ||
| Visual acuity | 44 | ||
| The anatomy of the accommodative apparatus | 44 | ||
| The ciliary body | 44 | ||
| The ciliary muscle | 44 | ||
| The zonular fibers | 45 | ||
| The lens capsule | 47 | ||
| The crystalline lens | 47 | ||
| The mechanism of accommodation | 48 | ||
| Accommodative optical changes in the lens and eye | 49 | ||
| The stimulus to accommodate | 55 | ||
| The pharmacology of accommodation | 56 | ||
| Measurement of accommodation | 57 | ||
| Presbyopia | 59 | ||
| Factors contributing to presbyopia | 59 | ||
| Age-related changes in rhesus ciliary muscle | 59 | ||
| Age-related changes in human ciliary muscle | 61 | ||
| Age-related changes in the zonule | 61 | ||
| Age-related changes in the capsule | 62 | ||
| Growth of the crystalline lens | 63 | ||
| Loss of ability of the human lens to accommodate | 65 | ||
| Age-related increase in stiffness of the human lens | 66 | ||
| References | 68 | ||
| 2 Physiology of optical media | 71 | ||
| 4 Cornea and Sclera | 71 | ||
| Introduction | 71 | ||
| Cornea | 71 | ||
| Embryology, growth, development, and aging | 71 | ||
| Major corneal reference points and measurements | 73 | ||
| Optical properties | 77 | ||
| Light refraction | 77 | ||
| Light transmission | 78 | ||
| Collagen | 80 | ||
| Keratocytes | 83 | ||
| Proteoglycans | 85 | ||
| Corneal nerves | 88 | ||
| Corneal stromal wound healing | 89 | ||
| Barrier properties | 92 | ||
| Low-permeability barrier: the corneal epithelium | 92 | ||
| High-permeability barrier: the corneal endothelium | 96 | ||
| Leaky barrier function | 98 | ||
| Metabolic pump function | 99 | ||
| Corneal edema | 101 | ||
| Basement membrane and glycocalyx | 105 | ||
| Mechanical properties | 106 | ||
| Corneal stress | 106 | ||
| Corneal stiffness, strength extensibility, and toughness | 107 | ||
| Chronic biomechanical failure of the cornea – ectasia | 109 | ||
| Other functions | 112 | ||
| Drug delivery | 112 | ||
| Ultraviolet light filtration | 114 | ||
| Sclera | 115 | ||
| Embryology, growth, development, and aging | 115 | ||
| Major scleral reference points and measurements | 119 | ||
| Mechanical properties | 120 | ||
| Scleral dehydration and edema | 121 | ||
| Episcleral vasculature | 121 | ||
| Wound healing | 122 | ||
| Drug delivery | 122 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 125 | ||
| References | 125 | ||
| 5 The Lens | 131 | ||
| The anatomy of the adult lens | 131 | ||
| The basics of lens refraction and transparency | 131 | ||
| The early development of the lens | 133 | ||
| Lens fiber cell differentiation | 135 | ||
| Lens crystallins | 136 | ||
| The lens fiber cell cytoskeleton | 137 | ||
| Other cellular and biochemical specializations found in lens fiber cells | 138 | ||
| The control of lens growth | 139 | ||
| Communication between lens epithelial and fiber cells | 140 | ||
| Vascular support during lens development | 140 | ||
| The lens as the organizer of the anterior segment | 140 | ||
| Special problems of lens cell metabolism | 140 | ||
| Overview | 140 | ||
| Oxidants within and around the lens | 141 | ||
| Protection against oxidative damage | 141 | ||
| Energy production in the lens | 142 | ||
| Water and electrolyte balance | 142 | ||
| Lens transparency and refraction | 143 | ||
| Changes in the lens with aging | 144 | ||
| The structure and development of the lens sutures | 144 | ||
| The lens capsule | 145 | ||
| The zonules | 145 | ||
| Cataracts | 146 | ||
| Cataract epidemiology | 146 | ||
| General risk factors | 146 | ||
| Age-related nuclear cataracts | 148 | ||
| Age-related cortical cataracts | 150 | ||
| Posterior subcapsular cataracts | 151 | ||
| Mixed cataracts | 151 | ||
| Secondary cataracts | 152 | ||
| Less common types of cataract | 152 | ||
| Overview of age-related cataract formation | 155 | ||
| Perspectives for preventing cataract blindness | 155 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 157 | ||
| References | 157 | ||
| 6 The Vitreous | 164 | ||
| Introduction | 164 | ||
| Anatomy | 164 | ||
| Embryology | 164 | ||
| Structural considerations of embryology | 164 | ||
| Molecular and cellular considerations of embryology | 164 | ||
| Anatomy of the mature vitreous body | 164 | ||
| The vitreoretinal interface | 165 | ||
| Ultrastructural, biochemical, and biophysical aspects | 166 | ||
| Ultrastructural and biochemical aspects | 166 | ||
| Biophysical aspects | 168 | ||
| Aging of the vitreous | 171 | ||
| Molecular mechanisms in aging | 171 | ||
| Structural changes | 171 | ||
| Vitreo–retinal interface imaging | 172 | ||
| Diffusion kinetics as an indicator of the biophysical status of the vitreous | 172 | ||
| Physiology of the vitreous body | 174 | ||
| A. Support function for the retina and filling up function of the vitreous body cavity | 174 | ||
| Normal conditions | 174 | ||
| Pathological/pathophysiological correlations | 174 | ||
| Posterior vitreous detachment | 174 | ||
| Development of macular edema | 175 | ||
| B. Diffusion barrier between the anterior and the posterior segments of the eye | 176 | ||
| 3 Direction of gaze | 182 | ||
| 7 The Extraocular Muscles | 182 | ||
| The bony orbit | 182 | ||
| Normal extraocular muscles | 182 | ||
| Gross anatomy | 182 | ||
| Cranial motor nerve innervation | 185 | ||
| Orbital connective tissue | 186 | ||
| Histological anatomy and physiologic implications | 187 | ||
| Metabolism | 191 | ||
| Proprioception and proprioceptors | 195 | ||
| Development | 196 | ||
| Disease propensity | 197 | ||
| Disorders of eye movements | 197 | ||
| Strabismus | 197 | ||
| Nystagmus | 198 | ||
| Congenital cranial dysinnervation disorders (CCDD) | 199 | ||
| Diseases where EOM are preferentially spared | 199 | ||
| Diseases where EOM are preferentially involved | 202 | ||
| Conclusion | 204 | ||
| References | 204 | ||
| 8 Three-Dimensional Rotations of the Eye | 208 | ||
| Eye motility | 208 | ||
| Quantifying eye rotations | 208 | ||
| Nested-axes coordinates | 210 | ||
| Head-fixed coordinates | 210 | ||
| Listing’s law | 211 | ||
| False torsion | 213 | ||
| Neural control of ocular orientation | 214 | ||
| Orbital mechanics can simplify neural control: extraocular pulleys | 216 | ||
| Summary | 219 | ||
| References | 219 | ||
| 9 Neural Control of Eye Movements | 220 | ||
| Introduction | 220 | ||
| Three fundamental visual sensory-motor tasks | 220 | ||
| Three components of eye rotation | 220 | ||
| Binocular constraints on eye position control | 220 | ||
| Feedback and feedforward control systems | 221 | ||
| Hierarchy of oculomotor control | 222 | ||
| Final common pathway | 222 | ||
| Cranial nerves: III, IV, & VI and motor nuclei | 222 | ||
| Motor neuron response | 223 | ||
| Functional classification into three general categories | 224 | ||
| I. Stabilization of gaze relative to the external world | 224 | ||
| A. Extra-retinal signals | 224 | ||
| B. Retinal signals | 225 | ||
| C. Neuro-control of stabilization reflexes | 226 | ||
| 1. Vestibulo-ocular reflex | 226 | ||
| 2. Optokinetic nystagmus | 227 | ||
| II. Foveal gaze lock (maintenance of foveal alignment with stationary and slowly moving targets) | 227 | ||
| A. Static control of eye alignment (fixation) | 227 | ||
| B. Dynamic control of eye alignment (smooth tracking responses to open- and closed-loop stimuli) | 229 | ||
| 1. Conjugate smooth pursuit tracking | 229 | ||
| 2. Disconjugate smooth vergence tracking | 230 | ||
| 3. Adaptable interactions between smooth pursuit and smooth vergence | 230 | ||
| C. Neuro-control of smooth foveal tracking | 230 | ||
| 1. Smooth pursuit tracking system | 230 | ||
| 2. Smooth vergence tracking system | 230 | ||
| III. Foveal gaze shifts: target selection and foveal acquisition | 231 | ||
| A. Rapid conjugate shifts of gaze direction (saccadic eye movements) | 231 | ||
| B. Disconjugate shifts of gaze distance (the near response in symmetrical convergence) | 232 | ||
| C. Interactions between conjugate and disconjugate eye movements (asymmetric vergence) | 233 | ||
| D. Neuro-control of foveal gaze shifts | 235 | ||
| 1. Saccadic gaze shifting system | 235 | ||
| 2. Vergence gaze shifting system: the near triad and interactions with saccades | 235 | ||
| Neurological disorders of the oculomotor system | 236 | ||
| I. Strabismus | 237 | ||
| II. Gaze restrictions | 237 | ||
| III. Saccade disorders | 239 | ||
| IV. Nystagmus | 240 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 240 | ||
| References | 240 | ||
| 4 Nutrition of the eye | 243 | ||
| 10 Ocular Circulation | 243 | ||
| Introduction | 243 | ||
| Anatomy of the ocular circulation | 243 | ||
| Vascular supply of the retina | 243 | ||
| Vascular supply of the choroid | 244 | ||
| Paraoptic pattern | 244 | ||
| Perimacular pattern | 244 | ||
| Fine structure and innervation of retinal and choroidal vessels | 246 | ||
| Vascular supply of the anterior segment | 246 | ||
| Transport through blood–retinal barriers | 247 | ||
| Transcellular pathway (transcytosis) | 247 | ||
| Paracellular pathway | 247 | ||
| Extracellular structures | 248 | ||
| Glycocalyx | 248 | ||
| Extracellular matrix | 248 | ||
| Inner blood–retinal barrier | 249 | ||
| Pericytes | 249 | ||
| Glial cells | 249 | ||
| Outer blood–retinal barrier | 249 | ||
| Fenestrated endothelium | 249 | ||
| Retinal pigment epithelium | 249 | ||
| Bruch’s membrane | 249 | ||
| Blood–aqueous barriers | 249 | ||
| Techniques for measuring ocular blood flow | 250 | ||
| Techniques used in experimental animals | 250 | ||
| Non-invasive techniques used in physiological and clinical research | 251 | ||
| Ocular circulatory physiology | 254 | ||
| General hemodynamic considerations | 254 | ||
| Ocular hemodynamic data under basal physiological conditions | 255 | ||
| Retina | 255 | ||
| Choroid | 255 | ||
| Ciliary circulation | 255 | ||
| Vasomotion | 256 | ||
| Effects of age on ocular blood flow | 256 | ||
| Regulation of ocular BF | 256 | ||
| Autoregulation of ocular blood flow | 256 | ||
| Retina and ONH | 256 | ||
| Choroid | 257 | ||
| Anterior uvea | 257 | ||
| Mechanisms underlying retinal and ONH autoregulation | 257 | ||
| Regulation of blood flow in response to increase in arterial blood pressure (ABP) | 257 | ||
| Static exercises | 257 | ||
| Dynamic exercises | 258 | ||
| Change in posture | 258 | ||
| Regulation of blood flow in response to changes in blood gases | 258 | ||
| Hyperoxia | 258 | ||
| Hypoxia | 258 | ||
| Hypercapnia | 259 | ||
| Metabolic control of retinal blood flow | 260 | ||
| Retinal metabolism and vasoreactivity | 260 | ||
| Blood flow response to visual stimulation | 260 | ||
| Light/dark transition | 260 | ||
| Flicker | 261 | ||
| Control of arterial tone by endothelium or neuro-glial activity | 261 | ||
| Nitric oxide | 262 | ||
| Endothelins | 262 | ||
| Prostaglandins (PGs) | 263 | ||
| Neural, endocrine, and paracrine control | 263 | ||
| Effects of vasoactive nerves | 263 | ||
| Adenosine | 264 | ||
| Endogenous and pharmacological substances | 264 | ||
| Role of administration route | 264 | ||
| Vasoconstrictors | 264 | ||
| Vasodilators | 265 | ||
| Ciliary blood flow regulation | 265 | ||
| Ocular blood flow and its regulation in diseases | 265 | ||
| Diabetes | 265 | ||
| Glaucoma | 266 | ||
| Age-related macular degeneration | 266 | ||
| References | 266 | ||
| 11 Production and Flow of Aqueous Humor | 274 | ||
| Aqueous humor formation | 274 | ||
| Physiology of aqueous humor formation | 274 | ||
| Biochemistry of aqueous humor formation | 275 | ||
| Aqueous humor composition | 278 | ||
| Blood–aqueous barrier | 278 | ||
| Active transport | 279 | ||
| Pharmacology and regulation of aqueous humor formation and composition (Box 11.1) | 280 | ||
| Cholinergic mechanisms | 280 | ||
| Adrenergic mechanisms | 281 | ||
| Other agents | 281 | ||
| Aqueous humor drainage | 283 | ||
| Fluid mechanics | 283 | ||
| Structural components | 284 | ||
| Pumping model for trabecular outflow | 285 | ||
| Active involvement of the TM in regulating outflow | 286 | ||
| Outflow obstruction | 287 | ||
| Extracellular matrix accumulation and POAG | 287 | ||
| Cell and other particulates | 289 | ||
| Protein and other macromolecules | 289 | ||
| Pharmacology and regulation of outflow | 289 | ||
| Cholinergic mechanisms | 289 | ||
| Conventional (trabecular) outflow | 289 | ||
| Alterations in cholinergic sensitivity of the outflow apparatus | 290 | ||
| Unconventional (uveoscleral) outflow | 291 | ||
| Adrenergic mechanisms | 291 | ||
| Conventional (trabecular) outflow | 291 | ||
| Unconventional (uveoscleral) outflow | 292 | ||
| Cytoskeletal and cell junctional mechanisms (Box 11.2) | 292 | ||
| Corticosteroid mechanisms | 294 | ||
| Prostaglandin mechanisms (Box 11.3) | 296 | ||
| Cell volume related mechanisms | 297 | ||
| Hyaluronidase and protease-induced facility increases | 298 | ||
| Other agents | 298 | ||
| Physical enhancement of outflow | 299 | ||
| References | 299 | ||
| 12 Metabolic Interactions between Neurons and Glial Cells | 308 | ||
| Introduction | 308 | ||
| 1. Retinal oxygen distribution and consumption | 309 | ||
| Inner retina | 309 | ||
| Dark and light O2 consumption | 309 | ||
| Outer retina | 309 | ||
| Photoreceptor QO2 in darkness | 309 | ||
| Photoreceptor QO2 in light | 309 | ||
| 2. Role of glycolysis underlying retinal function: from whole retina to its parts | 310 | ||
| 3. Biochemical specialization of glial cells | 311 | ||
| 4. Role of glycogen | 313 | ||
| 5. Functional neuronal activity and division of metabolic labor | 313 | ||
| 6. Cellular compartmentation of energy substrates other than glucose | 314 | ||
| 7. Experimental models used to study the interaction between photoreceptors and glial Müller cells | 315 | ||
| In vitro studies of the retina of the honeybee drone | 315 | ||
| If there are no conventional synapses in drone retina and only the photoreceptors are directly excitable by light, what is the evidence that photoreceptors depend on surrounding glia for their metabolic needs? | 315 | ||
| When bee retinal slices are exposed to the glycolytic poison IAA, the light-induced change in QO2 is gradually abolished. Is this modulation of QO2 a direct effect of IAA in photoreceptors? | 316 | ||
| What is the evidence that photostimulation of drone retinal slices increases the carbohydrate metabolism in the glia to sustain photoreceptor respiration? | 316 | ||
| Glucose is not the principal energy substrate used by photoreceptors, so what is the identity of the energy metabolite maintaining photoreceptor function and respiration? | 316 | ||
| What is the biochemical evidence for the metabolic effects of NH4+and glutamate in glia? | 317 | ||
| Overall scheme for metabolic compartmentation and metabolic trafficking in honeybee drone retina | 317 | ||
| Experimental models in vertebrates | 318 | ||
| 8. Metabolic interactions between vertebrate photoreceptors and Müller glial cells | 319 | ||
| 9. Metabolic interaction between photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelia | 319 | ||
| 10. Metabolic factors in the regulation of retinal blood flow | 320 | ||
| 11. Metabolic pathway leading to nitric oxide release | 321 | ||
| References | 322 | ||
| 13 The Function of the Retinal Pigment Epithelium | 325 | ||
| Introduction | 325 | ||
| Absorption of light | 325 | ||
| Transepithelial transport | 325 | ||
| Transport from the blood side to the photoreceptor side | 325 | ||
| Transport from the retinal side to the blood side | 326 | ||
| Capacitative compensation of fast changes in the ion composition in the subretinal space | 327 | ||
| Visual cycle | 328 | ||
| Phagocytosis of photoreceptor outer segments | 329 | ||
| Secretion | 330 | ||
| Structural integrity of neighboring tissues | 330 | ||
| Immune privilege of the eye | 331 | ||
| References | 331 | ||
| 5 Protection of the eye | 333 | ||
| 14 Functions of the Orbit and Eyelids | 333 | ||
| Introduction | 333 | ||
| Orbital anatomy and function | 333 | ||
| Orbit osteology | 333 | ||
| The orbital apex | 335 | ||
| Orbital soft tissues | 337 | ||
| Periorbital fascia | 337 | ||
| Orbital fat | 338 | ||
| Orbital nerves | 338 | ||
| Vascular anatomy | 339 | ||
| Arterial supply | 339 | ||
| Venous drainage | 340 | ||
| Orbital lymphatic drainage | 340 | ||
| Facial and eyelid anatomy and function | 340 | ||
| The eyebrow and forehead | 340 | ||
| The midface | 341 | ||
| The eyelid | 343 | ||
| The eyelid margin | 343 | ||
| Eyelid musculature | 344 | ||
| Blinking | 345 | ||
| Eyelid fat | 345 | ||
| Eyelid vasculature | 345 | ||
| Eyelid lymphatics | 346 | ||
| Eyelid innervation | 346 | ||
| References | 347 | ||
| 15 Formation and Function of the Tear Film | 350 | ||
| 1. Tear film overview | 350 | ||
| 2. Glycocalyx | 350 | ||
| A. Structure | 350 | ||
| B. Function | 352 | ||
| 3. Mucous layer | 353 | ||
| A. Structure | 353 | ||
| B. Conjunctival goblet cells | 353 | ||
| C. Regulation of goblet cell mucin production | 353 | ||
| Overview | 353 | ||
| Regulation of goblet cell secretion | 353 | ||
| Regulation of goblet cell proliferation | 354 | ||
| D. Regulation of conjunctival electrolyte and water secretion | 354 | ||
| E. Mucous layer function | 356 | ||
| 4. Aqueous layer | 356 | ||
| A. Overview | 356 | ||
| B. Lacrimal gland structure | 356 | ||
| C. Lacrimal gland innervation | 356 | ||
| D. Protein secretion regulation | 356 | ||
| Types of protein secretion | 356 | ||
| Cholinergic agonists | 357 | ||
| VIP | 357 | ||
| α1-Adrenergic agonists | 357 | ||
| EGF | 358 | ||
| Interaction of pathways | 358 | ||
| E. Regulation of electrolyte and water secretion | 358 | ||
| Mechanism of acinar electrolyte and water secretion | 358 | ||
| Mechanism of ductal electrolyte and water secretion | 359 | ||
| Neural activation of electrolyte and water secretion | 360 | ||
| F. Lacrimal gland fluid composition | 360 | ||
| G. Aqueous layer function | 360 | ||
| 5. Lipid layer | 360 | ||
| A. Structure of meibomian glands and mechanism of lipid production | 360 | ||
| B. Regulation of meibum secretion | 361 | ||
| Neural regulation | 361 | ||
| Hormonal regulation | 361 | ||
| C. Function | 361 | ||
| References | 361 | ||
| 16 Sensory Innervation of the Eye | 363 | ||
| Introduction | 363 | ||
| 1. Anatomy of ocular sensory nerves | 363 | ||
| 1.1 Origin of the ocular sensory nerves | 363 | ||
| Trigeminal ganglion neurons | 363 | ||
| The ophthalmic nerve and its branches | 363 | ||
| 1.2 Distribution of sensory nerve fibers within the eye | 364 | ||
| 1.3 Architecture of corneal sensory nerves | 365 | ||
| Corneal stromal nerves | 365 | ||
| Subepithelial nerve plexus | 365 | ||
| Sub-basal nerve plexus | 365 | ||
| Intraepithelial nerve terminals | 365 | ||
| 1.4 Central sensory pathways | 367 | ||
| 2. Development and remodeling of corneal innervation | 367 | ||
| 2.1 Development of corneal nerves | 367 | ||
| 2.2 Dynamic remodeling of adult corneal innervation | 369 | ||
| 2.3 Regeneration of injured corneal nerves | 369 | ||
| 3. Functional characteristics of ocular sensory innervation | 369 | ||
| 3.1 Trigeminal ganglion neurons | 369 | ||
| 3.1.1 Sensory fibers of the cornea and conjunctiva | 369 | ||
| Polymodal nociceptors | 371 | ||
| Mechano-nociceptors | 371 | ||
| Cold thermal receptors | 371 | ||
| “Silent” nociceptors | 372 | ||
| 3.1.2 Sensory fibers of the sclera, iris, and ciliary body | 374 | ||
| 3.1.3 Ocular trigeminal ganglion neurons | 374 | ||
| 3.2 Central pathways | 374 | ||
| 4. Inflammation and injury effects on ocular sensory neurons | 374 | ||
| 4.1 Local inflammation | 374 | ||
| 4.2 Nerve injury | 375 | ||
| 5. Trophic effects of ocular sensory nerves | 375 | ||
| 6. Sensations arising from the eye | 377 | ||
| 6.1 Techniques for testing ocular surface sensitivity | 377 | ||
| 6.2. Psychophysics of corneal and conjunctival sensations | 377 | ||
| 6.3 Sensitivity of the injured cornea | 377 | ||
| 7. Ocular pain | 379 | ||
| 7.1 Superficial ocular pain | 381 | ||
| 7.2 Deep ocular pain | 381 | ||
| 7.3 Pain referred to the eye | 382 | ||
| 8. Drugs acting on ocular sensory nerves | 382 | ||
| Topical anesthetics | 382 | ||
| Anti-inflammatory drugs | 382 | ||
| Cycloplegic agents | 382 | ||
| Analgesics | 382 | ||
| Prevention of surgical pain | 382 | ||
| References | 383 | ||
| 17 Outward-Directed Transport | 385 | ||
| Introduction | 385 | ||
| Efflux transporters – brief history | 385 | ||
| Efflux transporters in ocular tissues | 386 | ||
| P-gp | 386 | ||
| Mode of action and structure of P-gp | 387 | ||
| MRP | 387 | ||
| Mode of action and structure of MRP | 389 | ||
| BCRP | 389 | ||
| Mode of action and structure of BCRP | 390 | ||
| LRP | 390 | ||
| Localization of transporters | 390 | ||
| Discussion | 390 | ||
| Clinical correlates from literature | 390 | ||
| Strategies to evade efflux transporters | 391 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 392 | ||
| References | 392 | ||
| 6 Photoreception | 394 | ||
| 18 Biochemical Cascade of Phototransduction | 394 | ||
| Overview | 394 | ||
| Location and compartmentalization of rods and cones | 394 | ||
| Dark-adapted rods | 394 | ||
| The resting dark-adapted state | 396 | ||
| The membrane potential | 396 | ||
| The dark current and the cGMP-gated channel | 396 | ||
| Ca2+ and the exchanger | 397 | ||
| Control of [cGMP] by guanylate cyclase and PDE6 | 398 | ||
| Rhodopsin | 398 | ||
| G-protein, Gt | 399 | ||
| Importance of lipid milieu | 400 | ||
| The activation phase of a light response | 401 | ||
| Photoisomerization of rhodopsin | 401 | ||
| G-protein activation | 402 | ||
| PDE6 activation | 402 | ||
| Channel closing | 402 | ||
| Slowing of neurotransmitter release | 402 | ||
| The recovery phase | 402 | ||
| Rhodopsin phosphorylation, retinoid recycling and regeneration | 402 | ||
| Arrestin binding | 404 | ||
| cGMP restoration by guanylate cyclase activation | 404 | ||
| G-protein and PDE6 inactivation by RGS9-1 | 404 | ||
| Amplification | 404 | ||
| Responses to saturating light levels | 405 | ||
| Adaptation to changing levels of ambient lighting (see Chapter 20) | 405 | ||
| Turnover of guanine nucleotides | 405 | ||
| Comparison of cones and rods | 406 | ||
| Similarities and differences of phototransduction molecules | 406 | ||
| Physiological differences | 406 | ||
| Phototransduction and disease | 406 | ||
| Retinal degeneration and night blindness | 407 | ||
| What we don’t know | 407 | ||
| Where the field is headed | 408 | ||
| References | 408 | ||
| 19 Photoresponses of Rods and Cones | 411 | ||
| Photovoltage response to flashes | 411 | ||
| Photocurrent response to flashes | 411 | ||
| Detecting single photons | 413 | ||
| Photocurrent response to steady light | 415 | ||
| Action spectra of rods and cones | 417 | ||
| CNG channel and Na+/K+,Ca2+ exchanger | 420 | ||
| Role of inner segment conductances | 422 | ||
| Delayed rectifier potassium current, IKV | 423 | ||
| Hyperpolarization-activated current, IH | 423 | ||
| Voltage-activated calcium current, ICa | 423 | ||
| Calcium-activated potassium current, IK(Ca) | 424 | ||
| Calcium-activated anion current, ICl(Ca) | 424 | ||
| Electrotonic coupling | 425 | ||
| Summary | 426 | ||
| Acknowledgment | 426 | ||
| References | 426 | ||
| 20 Light Adaptation in Photoreceptors | 429 | ||
| 1. Vision from starlight to sunlight | 429 | ||
| Light adaptation versus dark adaptation | 429 | ||
| Purposes of light adaptation | 429 | ||
| 2. Performance of the photopic and scotopic divisions of the visual system | 430 | ||
| Photopic vision: the cone system is the workhorse of vision | 430 | ||
| The responses of cones are rapid and moderately sensitive | 430 | ||
| Comparison of photopic and scotopic light adaptation | 430 | ||
| Scotopic vision: the rod system provides specialization for night vision | 430 | ||
| 3. Light adaptation of the electrical responses of cones and rods | 432 | ||
| Saturation of the electrical response in rods and its avoidance in cones | 432 | ||
| Desensitization and acceleration of the photoreceptor’s electrical response | 433 | ||
| Unaltered rising phase but accelerated recovery | 433 | ||
| Dependence of sensitivity on background intensity: Weber’s Law | 434 | ||
| Extremely rapid recovery of human cone photocurrent | 435 | ||
| 4. Molecular basis of photoreceptor light adaptation | 436 | ||
| The phototransduction cascade | 436 | ||
| Photoreceptor light adaptation independent of calcium | 436 | ||
| Accelerated turnover of cGMP | 437 | ||
| Calcium-dependent mechanisms of rapid light adaptation: re-sensitization through prevention of saturation | 437 | ||
| Powerful negative feedback loop mediated by calcium | 437 | ||
| Guanylyl cyclase activation | 438 | ||
| Shortened R* lifetime | 438 | ||
| Channel reactivation | 439 | ||
| Molecular basis of the cone’s incredibly rapid recovery from light exposure | 439 | ||
| Cone avoidance of saturation | 439 | ||
| Modeling of human cone light adaptation | 440 | ||
| 5. Slow changes in rods: light adaptation or dark adaptation? | 440 | ||
| Light-induced change in the dominant time constant | 440 | ||
| Light-induced translocation of proteins | 440 | ||
| 6. Dark adaptation of the rods: very slow recovery from bleaching | 440 | ||
| References | 442 | ||
| 7 Visual processing in the retina | 443 | ||
| 21 The Synaptic Organization of the Retina | 443 | ||
| Kinds of neurons | 443 | ||
| The multipolar neuron phenotype | 444 | ||
| The gliaform cell phenotype | 444 | ||
| True glia and vasculature | 445 | ||
| Basic synaptic communication | 446 | ||
| 1. Photoreceptor ribbon synapses: small-volume multi-target signaling | 446 | ||
| 2. BC ribbon synapses: semi-precise target signaling | 447 | ||
| 3. AC and AxC conventional fast synapses: precise presynaptic → postsynaptic signaling | 448 | ||
| 4. AC, AxC, and efferent slow transmitter synapses: large volume signaling | 448 | ||
| 5. HC non-canonical signaling | 449 | ||
| 6. Coupling types and coupling patterns | 449 | ||
| Fast, focal neurochemistry, synaptic currents, and amplification | 449 | ||
| Global neurochemistry and modulation | 450 | ||
| Modulation by transporters | 450 | ||
| Signal processing | 451 | ||
| Sign-conserving (>) and sign-inverting (>i, >m) transfers | 451 | ||
| Synaptic chains and polarity | 451 | ||
| Feedback, feedforward, and nested feedback/feedforward | 452 | ||
| Caveats | 452 | ||
| Networks | 452 | ||
| The synaptology of center-surround organization | 452 | ||
| The synaptology of mammalian rod pathways – evolution of a new amplification scheme | 452 | ||
| The synaptology of motion – AC surrounds from afar | 454 | ||
| The synaptology of color – HC surrounds again? | 454 | ||
| R/G opponency | 454 | ||
| B/Y opponency | 455 | ||
| Revising the retinal synaptic networks with disease | 455 | ||
| References | 457 | ||
| 22 Signal Processing in the Outer Retina | 459 | ||
| Electrical synapses (coupling) between photoreceptors | 459 | ||
| Glutamatergic synapses between photoreceptors and second-order retinal neurons | 460 | ||
| Horizontal cell responses | 460 | ||
| Horizontal cell output synapses | 462 | ||
| Rod and cone pathways and bipolar cell output synapses | 464 | ||
| Bipolar cell responses and center-surround antagonistic receptive field (CSARF) organization | 465 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 469 | ||
| References | 469 | ||
| 23 Signal Processing in the Inner Retina | 471 | ||
| Bipolar cells form parallel pathways and provide excitatory input to the IPL | 471 | ||
| Synaptic mechanisms shape excitatory signals in the IPL | 471 | ||
| Amacrine cells mediate inhibition in the IPL | 473 | ||
| GABAergic feedback inhibition changes the timecourse of bipolar cell signaling | 475 | ||
| GABAergic inputs to the bipolar cell axon terminals contribute to surround signaling in the retina | 475 | ||
| The contributions of the inner and outer retina to ganglion cell receptive field surround organization | 475 | ||
| Glycinergic inhibition plays several different roles in the IPL | 476 | ||
| Neuromodulators in the IPL | 476 | ||
| Parallel ganglion cell output pathways | 476 | ||
| Ganglion cells encode color information | 476 | ||
| Directional selective ganglion cells | 477 | ||
| Intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells | 477 | ||
| Ganglion cell types form a retinal mosaic | 478 | ||
| Conclusions | 478 | ||
| References | 478 | ||
| 24 Electroretinogram of Human, Monkey and Mouse | 480 | ||
| Introduction | 480 | ||
| Generation of the ERG | 480 | ||
| Radial current flow | 480 | ||
| Glial currents | 482 | ||
| Stimulus conditions | 483 | ||
| Non-invasive recording of the ERG | 483 | ||
| Classical definition of components of the ERG | 484 | ||
| Slow PIII, the c-wave and other slow components of the direct current (dc)-ERG | 484 | ||
| Full-field dark-adapted (Ganzfeld) flash ERG | 484 | ||
| Dark-adapted a-wave | 485 | ||
| Negative ERGs | 485 | ||
| Modeling | 486 | ||
| Mixed rod-cone a-wave | 486 | ||
| Timecourse of the rod photoreceptor response | 487 | ||
| Dark-adapted b-wave (PII) | 487 | ||
| Scotopic threshold response (STR) | 488 | ||
| Light-adapted, cone-driven ERGs | 489 | ||
| Isolating cone-driven responses | 489 | ||
| Light-adapted a-wave | 491 | ||
| Light-adapted b-wave | 492 | ||
| Light-adapted d-wave | 493 | ||
| Flicker ERG | 494 | ||
| Oscillatory potentials | 495 | ||
| Photopic negative response | 495 | ||
| Pattern ERG | 496 | ||
| Multifocal ERG | 497 | ||
| Closing comments | 498 | ||
| References | 499 | ||
| 8 Non-perceptive vision | 502 | ||
| 25 Regulation of Light through the Pupil | 502 | ||
| The neuronal pathway of the pupil light reflex and near pupil response | 503 | ||
| Afferent arm of the pupil light reflex | 504 | ||
| The interneuron arm of the pupil light reflex | 506 | ||
| The efferent arm of the pupil light reflex | 507 | ||
| The pupil near reflex and accommodation | 508 | ||
| Pupil reflex dilation: central and peripheral nervous system integration | 508 | ||
| Other neuronal input to the iris | 509 | ||
| Structure of the iris | 509 | ||
| Iris sphincter, iris dilator, and iris color | 509 | ||
| Properties of light and their effect on pupil movement | 510 | ||
| Relative afferent pupillary defects | 511 | ||
| Clinical observation of the pupil light reflex | 511 | ||
| Computerized pupillometry | 514 | ||
| Pupil perimetry | 514 | ||
| Efferent pupillary defects | 514 | ||
| Anisocoria | 514 | ||
| Pupil inequality that increases in the dark | 515 | ||
| Pharmacologic diagnosis of Horner syndrome with cocaine or apraclonidine | 518 | ||
| Pharmacologic localization of the denervation in Horner syndrome | 519 | ||
| Congenital and childhood Horner syndrome | 519 | ||
| Pupil inequality that is increased in bright light | 520 | ||
| Examination of the iris with high magnification using the slit-lamp biomicroscope | 520 | ||
| Pharmacologic response of the iris sphincter to cholinergic drugs | 520 | ||
| Cholinergic supersensitivity | 520 | ||
| Subsensitivity of the iris sphincter to cholinergic testing | 521 | ||
| Adie’s tonic pupil: postganglionic parasympathetic denervation | 521 | ||
| Pupil involvement in third nerve palsy | 522 | ||
| Aberrant regeneration in the third nerve | 523 | ||
| Light-near dissociation: evaluation of the near response | 523 | ||
| When the pupil fails to dilate | 523 | ||
| References | 524 | ||
| 26 Ganglion-Cell Photoreceptors and Non-Image-Forming Vision | 526 | ||
| Overview | 526 | ||
| Historical roots | 526 | ||
| Discovery of melanopsin and ganglion-cell photoreceptors | 527 | ||
| Distinctive functional properties of ipRGCs | 528 | ||
| Melanopsin chromophore and pigment bistability | 528 | ||
| Spectral tuning | 528 | ||
| Invertebrate-like phototransduction cascade | 529 | ||
| Depolarizing photoresponse with action potentials | 529 | ||
| Sensitivity | 531 | ||
| Kinetics | 531 | ||
| Morphology, retinal distribution and receptive field | 531 | ||
| Resistance to pathological states | 532 | ||
| Synaptic input | 533 | ||
| Bipolar cell input | 533 | ||
| Amacrine cell input | 535 | ||
| Color coding of synaptic inputs | 536 | ||
| Synaptic output and physiological functions | 536 | ||
| Intraretinal output | 536 | ||
| Central projections | 537 | ||
| The pupillary light reflex | 538 | ||
| Circadian photoentrainment and photic modulation of the pineal | 538 | ||
| Acute regulation of activity and sleep | 540 | ||
| Lateral geniculate nucleus and conscious light perception | 541 | ||
| Development | 541 | ||
| References | 541 | ||
| 9 Visual processing in the brain | 545 | ||
| 27 Overview of the Central Visual Pathways | 545 | ||
| Targets of the retinal projections | 545 | ||
| Visual field lesions | 547 | ||
| References | 549 | ||
| 28 Optic Nerve | 550 | ||
| Introduction | 550 | ||
| Optic nerve anatomy | 550 | ||
| Retinal ganglion cell axons within the nerve fiber layer | 550 | ||
| Intrascleral optic nerve | 550 | ||
| Intraorbital optic nerve | 550 | ||
| The optic canal | 551 | ||
| Intracranial optic nerve and the optic chiasm | 552 | ||
| The optic tract and lateral geniculate nucleus | 552 | ||
| Optic nerve axon counts and dimensions | 553 | ||
| Microscopic anatomy and cytology | 553 | ||
| Axons | 553 | ||
| Oligodendrocytes and myelin | 553 | ||
| Astrocytes | 553 | ||
| Microglia | 554 | ||
| Meninges and meningothelial cells | 555 | ||
| Blood supply | 555 | ||
| Optic nerve head | 555 | ||
| Intraorbital optic nerve and optic canal | 556 | ||
| Intracranial optic nerve, chiasm, and optic tract | 556 | ||
| Vascular biology | 556 | ||
| Optic nerve development | 556 | ||
| Generation of optic nerve oligodendrocytes and myelination | 556 | ||
| Generation of optic nerve astrocytes | 557 | ||
| Development of optic nerve meninges | 557 | ||
| Axon number | 557 | ||
| Axon growth | 557 | ||
| Axon guidance | 557 | ||
| Optic nerve physiology | 558 | ||
| Retinal ganglion cell electrophysiology and synaptic transmission | 558 | ||
| Axonal conduction | 559 | ||
| Action potentials | 559 | ||
| Role of oligodendrocytes and myelin | 559 | ||
| Role of astrocytes | 559 | ||
| Axonal transport | 560 | ||
| Optic nerve injury | 560 | ||
| Clinical implications | 560 | ||
| Types of optic nerve injury | 560 | ||
| Traumatic optic neuropathy | 560 | ||
| Ischemic optic neuropathy | 560 | ||
| Optic neuritis and inflammation | 561 | ||
| Compressive optic neuropathy | 561 | ||
| Glaucoma | 561 | ||
| Papilledema | 562 | ||
| Retinal ganglion cell death after optic nerve injury | 562 | ||
| Time course | 563 | ||
| Apoptosis | 563 | ||
| Signaling of axonal injury | 563 | ||
| Phagocytosis and immune activation | 564 | ||
| Gliosis | 564 | ||
| Failure of axon regeneration | 564 | ||
| Glial inhibition of neurite extension | 564 | ||
| Neuron-intrinsic limitations to axon regeneration | 565 | ||
| Optic nerve repair | 565 | ||
| Optic nerve remyelination | 565 | ||
| Neuroprotection and retinal ganglion cell survival | 565 | ||
| Regeneration of RGC axons | 566 | ||
| “Neuroenhancement” of retinal ganglion cell function | 566 | ||
| Conclusions | 567 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 567 | ||
| References | 567 | ||
| 29 Processing in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) | 574 | ||
| The lateral geniculate nucleus: the gateway to conscious visual perception | 574 | ||
| Overview of lateral geniculate anatomy | 574 | ||
| Layers and maps | 574 | ||
| Cell classes | 575 | ||
| Inputs: the retina | 576 | ||
| Inputs: extraretinal sources and cortical feedback | 576 | ||
| Outputs: projections to V1 and beyond | 577 | ||
| LGN circuits: How are visual signals regulated? | 578 | ||
| Feedback and feedforward pathways | 578 | ||
| Circuit neurochemistry | 579 | ||
| Signal processing in the LGN | 580 | ||
| Receptive field properties and parallel processing | 580 | ||
| Physiology of M, P, and K cells | 581 | ||
| The influence of the “extra-classical” surround | 581 | ||
| The impact of feedback | 581 | ||
| The LGN and arousal, attention and conscious vision | 583 | ||
| The LGN and motor planning | 583 | ||
| The LGN and binocular rivalry and visual awareness | 584 | ||
| Conclusions | 584 | ||
| References | 585 | ||
| 30 Processing in the Primary Visual Cortex | 586 | ||
| Overview: The primary visual cortex constructs local image features | 586 | ||
| Overview of cortical organization: a general road map | 586 | ||
| Layers, connections, and cells of V1: The inputs, outputs, and general wiring | 588 | ||
| LGN inputs | 588 | ||
| Other inputs to V1 | 589 | ||
| Cell classes and connections within V1 | 589 | ||
| Output pathways from V1 | 590 | ||
| Receptive field properties: How is V1 different from the LGN? | 591 | ||
| Columns and modules: Outlining the functional architecture of V1 | 593 | ||
| How do parallel inputs relate to parallel outputs? | 594 | ||
| Does V1 Do More? | 595 | ||
| The importance of time | 595 | ||
| The importance of context | 596 | ||
| Conclusion | 597 | ||
| References | 597 | ||
| 31 Extrastriate Visual Cortex | 599 | ||
| What is extrastriate visual cortex? | 599 | ||
| Methods used to identify extrastriate areas in monkeys and humans | 599 | ||
| Histology | 599 | ||
| Retinotopic mapping | 599 | ||
| Connection patterns | 601 | ||
| Functional specificity | 601 | ||
| Comparing visual areas in monkeys and humans | 602 | ||
| Processing streams in extrastriate cortex | 603 | ||
| V2 | 603 | ||
| Areas of the dorsal stream | 605 | ||
| MT/V5 and related areas | 605 | ||
| V3 | 606 | ||
| V3A | 607 | ||
| PO/V6 | 607 | ||
| Parietal lobe areas | 607 | ||
| Areas of the ventral stream | 607 | ||
| V4 | 607 | ||
| Inferotemporal cortex | 608 | ||
| PIT/TEO | 608 | ||
| TE | 609 | ||
| References | 609 | ||
| 10 Visual perception | 613 | ||
| 32 Early Processing of Spatial Form | 613 | ||
| Introduction | 613 | ||
| Foveal window of visibility | 613 | ||
| What limits our contrast sensitivity? | 614 | ||
| What is the relationship between the contrast sensitivity function and the response of single cortical cells? | 614 | ||
| The contribution of M & P pathways to contrast sensitivity | 615 | ||
| Do these two parallel systems carry the same or different contrast sensitivity information? | 615 | ||
| The contribution of different cortical areas to contrast sensitivity | 616 | ||
| The effect of disease on contrast sensitivity | 616 | ||
| Peripheral window of visibility | 618 | ||
| Is the periphery specialized for detecting anything? | 619 | ||
| Why does contrast sensitivity for high spatial frequencies decline with eccentricity? | 619 | ||
| Luminance | 619 | ||
| Chromatic sensitivity | 621 | ||
| Suprathreshold sensitivity | 623 | ||
| Conclusion | 624 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 625 | ||
| References | 625 | ||
| 33 Visual Acuity | 627 | ||
| Defining and specifying visual acuity | 627 | ||
| Minimum visible acuity | 627 | ||
| Minimum resolvable acuity | 627 | ||
| Minimum recognizable acuity | 629 | ||
| Minimum discriminable acuity | 629 | ||
| Limiting factors in visual acuity | 630 | ||
| Optical quality of the eye | 630 | ||
| What limits optical image formation of the eye? | 632 | ||
| Refractive error and defocus results in a marked loss of image quality | 632 | ||
| Photoreceptor size and spacing; aperture size; the “Nyquist” limit; aliasing | 633 | ||
| Cone to ganglion cell convergence | 633 | ||
| Eccentricity | 634 | ||
| Crowding in peripheral vision | 636 | ||
| Luminance | 637 | ||
| Contrast | 637 | ||
| Time | 637 | ||
| Motion | 637 | ||
| Anisotropies | 638 | ||
| Visual acuity and reading | 638 | ||
| Spatial vision with low contrast | 639 | ||
| The contrast sensitivity function represents our window of visibility | 639 | ||
| The CSF in peripheral vision | 640 | ||
| Clinical testing of visual acuity | 642 | ||
| Visual acuity chart design considerations | 642 | ||
| Clinical tests for CSF | 643 | ||
| Glare | 643 | ||
| Development of spatial vision | 643 | ||
| Development of visual acuity and CSF | 643 | ||
| Development of hyperacuity | 644 | ||
| Visual acuity through the lifespan | 644 | ||
| Amblyopia | 645 | ||
| Crowding and amblyopia | 645 | ||
| References | 646 | ||
| 34 Color Vision | 648 | ||
| Molecular genetics of color vision and color deficiencies | 648 | ||
| Tests of color vision | 650 | ||
| Color appearance | 650 | ||
| Blue-yellow circuitry | 650 | ||
| Red-green circuitry | 652 | ||
| Black-white circuitry | 653 | ||
| Future directions | 653 | ||
| References | 654 | ||
| 35 The Visual Field | 655 | ||
| Introduction | 655 | ||
| The psychophysical basis for perimetry | 655 | ||
| The physiologic basis for perimetry | 656 | ||
| Types of perimetric testing | 656 | ||
| Kinetic perimetry | 657 | ||
| Static perimetry | 657 | ||
| Suprathreshold static perimetry | 658 | ||
| Detection of perimetric sensitivity loss and interpretation of results | 659 | ||
| Patterns of visual field loss associated with different pathologic conditions | 662 | ||
| Determination of visual field progression | 664 | ||
| A guide for interpretation of visual field information | 665 | ||
| New perimetric test procedures | 667 | ||
| Short wavelength automated perimetry (SWAP) | 667 | ||
| Frequency doubling technology (FDT) perimetry | 667 | ||
| Flicker and temporal modulation perimetry | 669 | ||
| Motion perimetry | 669 | ||
| High pass resolution perimetry | 670 | ||
| Rarebit perimetry | 670 | ||
| Multifocal visual evoked potentials (mfVEP) | 671 | ||
| Conclusions | 673 | ||
| References | 674 | ||
| 36 Binocular Vision | 677 | ||
| Introduction | 677 | ||
| Two eyes are better than one | 677 | ||
| Visual direction | 677 | ||
| Normal retinal correspondence | 679 | ||
| Abnormal retinal correspondence | 681 | ||
| Binocular (retinal) disparity | 683 | ||
| Stereopsis | 685 | ||
| Quantitative and qualitative stereopsis | 686 | ||
| Stereoacuity | 687 | ||
| Stereoacuity with refractive defocus | 690 | ||
| Spatial frequency and contrast effects on stereopsis | 690 | ||
| Spatial distortions from aniseikonia | 690 | ||
| Motion-in-depth | 693 | ||
| Suppression in normal binocular vision | 694 | ||
| Summary | 695 | ||
| References | 695 | ||
| 37 Temporal Properties of Vision | 698 | ||
| Temporal summation and the critical duration | 698 | ||
| Factors affecting the critical duration | 699 | ||
| Temporal sensitivity to periodic stimuli | 699 | ||
| Critical flicker fusion frequency | 699 | ||
| Effect of stimulus luminance on CFF | 700 | ||
| Effect of stimulus chromaticity on CFF | 701 | ||
| Effect of eccentricity on CFF | 701 | ||
| Effect of stimulus size on CFF: the Granit–Harper law | 701 | ||
| Temporal contrast sensitivity | 702 | ||
| Chromatic temporal sensitivity | 703 | ||
| Spatial effects on temporal sensitivity | 704 | ||
| Mechanisms underlying temporal sensitivity | 704 | ||
| Surround effects on temporal sensitivity | 705 | ||
| Differences between mean-modulated and luminance-pedestal flicker | 705 | ||
| The effects of flicker on perception | 706 | ||
| Temporal phase segmentation | 706 | ||
| Clinical applications of temporal sensitivity measurements | 707 | ||
| Motion processing | 708 | ||
| Psychophysical and perceptual evidence for unique motion processing | 708 | ||
| The neural encoding of motion | 708 | ||
| Clinical applications of motion processing | 709 | ||
| References | 710 | ||
| 11 Development and deprivation of vision | 713 | ||
| 38 Development of Vision in Infancy | 713 | ||
| Methodologies for assessing infant vision and their interpretation | 713 | ||
| Preferential looking | 713 | ||
| Visual evoked potentials | 713 | ||
| Ocular following movements | 713 | ||
| Hierarchy of visual processing | 714 | ||
| Spatio-temporal vision | 715 | ||
| Temporal resolution | 716 | ||
| Grating acuity | 716 | ||
| Vernier acuity | 717 | ||
| Optotype acuity | 718 | ||
| Motion | 718 | ||
| Motion direction asymmetries | 718 | ||
| Binocular vision | 719 | ||
| Fusion | 719 | ||
| Stereopsis and disparity sensitivity | 720 | ||
| Age of onset of disparity sensitivity | 720 | ||
| Development of disparity sensitivity | 720 | ||
| Summary | 722 | ||
| References | 722 | ||
| 39 Development of Retinogeniculate Projections | 725 | ||
| Retinogeniculate projections are refined during development | 725 | ||
| Activity-dependent refinement of retinogeniculate projections | 726 | ||
| What parameters of activity drive refinement? | 726 | ||
| Synaptic inputs change strength with segregation | 728 | ||
| Molecular mechanisms involved in activity-dependent axonal segregation | 729 | ||
| Molecular mechanisms guiding the formation of eye-specific axonal territories | 729 | ||
| Summary | 730 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 730 | ||
| References | 730 | ||
| 40 Developmental Visual Deprivation | 732 | ||
| Effects of early monocular form deprivation | 732 | ||
| Constant monocular form deprivation | 732 | ||
| Perceptual deficits | 732 | ||
| Neural changes | 733 | ||
| Intermittent monocular deprivation | 734 | ||
| Alternating monocular deprivation | 734 | ||
| Reverse occlusion | 734 | ||
| Brief unrestricted vision during monocular deprivation | 734 | ||
| Critical period | 735 | ||
| Critical period for monocular form deprivation | 735 | ||
| Molecular mechanisms of ocular dominance plasticity | 736 | ||
| Effects of early monocular defocus | 739 | ||
| Constant monocular defocus | 739 | ||
| Perceptual deficits | 739 | ||
| Neural changes | 739 | ||
| Alternating defocus | 740 | ||
| Effects of early strabismus | 742 | ||
| Perceptual deficits | 742 | ||
| Animal models of strabismus | 742 | ||
| Neural changes | 742 | ||
| Effects of onset age and duration of strabismus | 742 | ||
| Onset age | 744 | ||
| Duration | 744 | ||
| Eye movement anomalies | 745 | ||
| Amblyopia | 745 | ||
| Perceptual deficits | 746 | ||
| Neural changes | 746 | ||
| Improved visual performance in adult subjects with developmental disorders | 747 | ||
| Summary | 747 | ||
| References | 747 | ||
| 41 The Effects of Visual Deprivation After Infancy | 750 | ||
| Introduction | 750 | ||
| The neuronal effects of visual deprivation | 750 | ||
| Cross-modal processing in visually normal development | 750 | ||
| Cross-modal processing in visually normal adults | 751 | ||
| Cross-modal processing in early blind individuals | 752 | ||
| Tactile performance | 752 | ||
| Braille tactile processing | 755 | ||
| Non-Braille tactile processing | 756 | ||
| Auditory processing | 756 | ||
| Auditory localization | 758 | ||
| Auditory language | 759 | ||
| Cross-modal connectivity within occipital cortex of early blind individuals | 759 | ||
| Neuronal structure within occipital cortex of early blind individuals | 761 | ||
| Differences in cross-modal processing between the periphery and the fovea | 761 | ||
| Blindfolding studies | 761 | ||
| Restoration of vision | 762 | ||
| Concluding remarks | 764 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 765 | ||
| References | 765 | ||
| Index | 767 | ||
| A | 767 | ||
| B | 769 | ||
| C | 770 | ||
| D | 773 | ||
| E | 774 | ||
| F | 776 | ||
| G | 777 | ||
| H | 778 | ||
| I | 778 | ||
| J | 780 | ||
| K | 780 | ||
| L | 780 | ||
| M | 781 | ||
| N | 783 | ||
| O | 784 | ||
| P | 785 | ||
| Q | 788 | ||
| R | 788 | ||
| S | 790 | ||
| T | 792 | ||
| U | 793 | ||
| V | 794 | ||
| W | 795 | ||
| X | 795 | ||
| Y | 795 | ||
| Z | 795 |