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Abstract
The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology, by Drs. Keith L. Moore, T.V.N. Persaud, and Mark G. Torchia, delivers the world’s most complete, visually rich, and clinically oriented coverage of this complex subject. Written by some of the world’s most famous anatomists, it presents week-by-week and stage-by-stage views of how fetal organs and systems develop, why and when birth defects occur, and what roles the placenta and fetal membranes play in development.
- Acquire a detailed grasp of human embryology with the world’s most comprehensive, richly illustrated, and clinically oriented coverage from a cadre of leading world authorities.
- Effectively prepare for exams with review questions and answers at the end of each chapter.
- Understand all of the latest advances in embryology, including normal and abnormal embryogenesis, causes of birth defects, and the role of genes in human development.
- See how discoveries in molecular biology have affected clinical practice, including the development of sophisticated new techniques such as recumbent DNA technology and stem cell manipulation.
- Prepare for the USMLE Step 1 with clinical case presentations, highlighted in special boxes, that demonstrate how embryology concepts relate to clinical practice.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Inside front cover | ifc1 | ||
| Marketing AD | i | ||
| Half title page | iii | ||
| Award page | iv | ||
| The Developing Human | v | ||
| Copyright page | vi | ||
| Dedication | vii | ||
| Contributors | ix | ||
| Preface | xi | ||
| Acknowledgments | xiii | ||
| Table of Contents | xv | ||
| 1 Introduction to the Developing Human | 1 | ||
| Developmental Periods | 1 | ||
| Significance of Embryology | 5 | ||
| Historical Gleanings | 6 | ||
| Ancient Views of Human Embryology | 6 | ||
| Embryology in the Middle Ages | 6 | ||
| The Renaissance | 7 | ||
| Genetics and Human Development | 8 | ||
| Molecular Biology of Human Development | 10 | ||
| Descriptive Terms in Embryology | 10 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 10 | ||
| References and Suggested Readings | 11 | ||
| 2 First Week of Human Development | 13 | ||
| Gametogenesis | 14 | ||
| Meiosis | 14 | ||
| Spermatogenesis | 14 | ||
| Oogenesis | 19 | ||
| Prenatal Maturation of Oocytes | 19 | ||
| Postnatal Maturation of Oocytes | 19 | ||
| Comparison of Gametes (sex Cells) | 19 | ||
| Uterus, Uterine Tubes, and Ovaries | 19 | ||
| Uterus | 19 | ||
| Uterine Tubes | 20 | ||
| Ovaries | 20 | ||
| Female Reproductive Cycles | 20 | ||
| Ovarian Cycle | 23 | ||
| Follicular Development | 23 | ||
| Ovulation | 24 | ||
| Corpus Luteum | 25 | ||
| Menstrual Cycle | 26 | ||
| Phases of the Menstrual Cycle | 26 | ||
| Transportation of Gametes | 27 | ||
| Oocyte Transport | 27 | ||
| Sperm Transport | 27 | ||
| Maturation of Sperms | 28 | ||
| Viability of Gametes | 29 | ||
| Fertilization | 30 | ||
| Phases of Fertilization | 30 | ||
| Fertilization | 31 | ||
| Cleavage of Zygote | 32 | ||
| Formation of Blastocyst | 35 | ||
| Summary of First Week (Fig. 2-20) | 37 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 38 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 39 | ||
| 3 Second Week of Human Development | 41 | ||
| Completion of Implantation of Blastocyst | 41 | ||
| Formation of Amniotic Cavity, Embryonic Disc, and Umbilical Vesicle | 43 | ||
| Development of Chorionic Sac | 44 | ||
| Implantation Sites of Blastocysts | 48 | ||
| Summary of Implantation | 48 | ||
| Summary of Second Week | 51 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 51 | ||
| Case 3–1 | 51 | ||
| Case 3–2 | 51 | ||
| Case 3–3 | 51 | ||
| Case 3–4 | 51 | ||
| Case 3–5 | 51 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 51 | ||
| 4 Third Week of Human Development | 53 | ||
| Gastrulation: Formation of Germ Layers | 54 | ||
| Primitive Streak | 54 | ||
| Fate of Primitive Streak | 56 | ||
| Notochordal Process and Notochord | 57 | ||
| Allantois | 58 | ||
| Neurulation: Formation of Neural Tube | 61 | ||
| Neural Plate and Neural Tube | 61 | ||
| Neural Crest Formation | 61 | ||
| Development of Somites | 63 | ||
| Development of Intraembryonic Coelom | 64 | ||
| Early Development of Cardiovascular System | 64 | ||
| Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis | 64 | ||
| Primordial Cardiovascular System | 64 | ||
| Development of Chorionic Villi | 65 | ||
| Summary of Third Week | 66 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 69 | ||
| Case 4–1 | 69 | ||
| Case 4–2 | 69 | ||
| Case 4–3 | 69 | ||
| Case 4–4 | 69 | ||
| Case 4–5 | 69 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 69 | ||
| 5 Fourth to Eighth Weeks of Human Development | 71 | ||
| Phases of Embryonic Development | 71 | ||
| Folding of Embryo | 72 | ||
| Folding of Embryo in the Median Plane | 72 | ||
| Head Fold | 72 | ||
| Tail Fold | 72 | ||
| Folding of Embryo in the Horizontal Plane | 72 | ||
| Germ Layer Derivatives | 72 | ||
| Control of Embryonic Development | 74 | ||
| Highlights of Fourth to Eighth Weeks | 76 | ||
| Fourth Week | 76 | ||
| Fifth Week | 77 | ||
| Sixth Week | 77 | ||
| Seventh Week | 80 | ||
| Eighth Week | 86 | ||
| Estimation of Embryonic Age | 89 | ||
| Summary of Fourth to Eighth Weeks | 89 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 90 | ||
| Case 5–1 | 90 | ||
| Case 5–2 | 90 | ||
| Case 5–3 | 91 | ||
| Case 5–4 | 91 | ||
| Case 5–5 | 91 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 91 | ||
| 6 Ninth Week to Birth: | 93 | ||
| Estimation of Fetal Age | 95 | ||
| Trimesters of Pregnancy | 95 | ||
| Measurements and Characteristics of Fetuses | 95 | ||
| Highlights of Fetal Period | 96 | ||
| Nine to Twelve Weeks | 96 | ||
| Thirteen to Sixteen Weeks | 97 | ||
| Seventeen to Twenty Weeks | 98 | ||
| Twenty-One to Twenty-Five Weeks | 98 | ||
| Twenty-Six to Twenty-Nine Weeks | 99 | ||
| Thirty to Thirty-Four Weeks | 99 | ||
| Thirty-Five to Thirty-Eight Weeks | 99 | ||
| Expected Date of Delivery | 101 | ||
| Factors Influencing Fetal Growth | 101 | ||
| Cigarette Smoking | 101 | ||
| Multiple Pregnancy | 101 | ||
| Alcohol and Illicit Drugs | 101 | ||
| Impaired Uteroplacental and Fetoplacental Blood Flow | 102 | ||
| Genetic Factors and Growth Retardation | 102 | ||
| Procedures for Assessing Fetal Status | 102 | ||
| Ultrasonography | 102 | ||
| Diagnostic Amniocentesis | 102 | ||
| Alpha-Fetoprotein Assay | 103 | ||
| Spectrophotometric Studies | 103 | ||
| Chorionic Villus Sampling | 104 | ||
| Sex Chromatin Patterns | 104 | ||
| Cell Cultures and Chromosomal Analysis | 104 | ||
| Fetal Transfusion | 104 | ||
| Fetoscopy | 105 | ||
| Percutaneous Umbilical Cord Blood Sampling | 105 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 105 | ||
| Fetal Monitoring | 105 | ||
| Summary of Fetal Period | 105 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 106 | ||
| Case 6–1 | 106 | ||
| Case 6–2 | 106 | ||
| Case 6–3 | 106 | ||
| Case 6–4 | 106 | ||
| Case 6–5 | 106 | ||
| Case 6–6 | 106 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 106 | ||
| 7 Placenta and Fetal Membranes | 109 | ||
| Placenta | 109 | ||
| Decidua | 110 | ||
| Development of Placenta | 110 | ||
| Placental Circulation | 113 | ||
| Fetal Placental Circulation | 114 | ||
| Maternal Placental Circulation | 114 | ||
| Placental Membrane | 114 | ||
| Functions of Placenta | 116 | ||
| Placental Metabolism | 116 | ||
| Placental Transfer | 116 | ||
| Transfer of Gases | 118 | ||
| Nutritional Substances | 118 | ||
| Hormones | 118 | ||
| Electrolytes | 118 | ||
| Maternal Antibodies and Proteins | 118 | ||
| Waste Products | 119 | ||
| Drugs and Drug Metabolites | 119 | ||
| Infectious Agents | 119 | ||
| Placental Endocrine Synthesis and Secretion | 119 | ||
| The Placenta as an Allograft* | 119 | ||
| Placenta as an Invasive Tumor-like Structure | 120 | ||
| Uterine Growth during Pregnancy | 121 | ||
| Parturition | 121 | ||
| Placenta and Fetal Membranes after Birth | 123 | ||
| Maternal Surface of Placenta | 123 | ||
| Fetal Surface of Placenta | 123 | ||
| Umbilical Cord | 126 | ||
| Amnion and Amniotic Fluid | 127 | ||
| Amniotic Fluid | 127 | ||
| Circulation of Amniotic Fluid | 131 | ||
| Composition of Amniotic Fluid | 131 | ||
| Significance of Amniotic Fluid | 131 | ||
| Umbilical Vesicle | 132 | ||
| Significance of Umbilical Vesicle | 132 | ||
| Fate of Umbilical Vesicle | 132 | ||
| Allantois | 132 | ||
| Multiple Pregnancies | 133 | ||
| Twins and Fetal Membranes | 133 | ||
| Dizygotic Twins | 134 | ||
| Monozygotic Twins | 134 | ||
| Other Types of Multiple Births | 138 | ||
| Summary of Placenta and Fetal Membranes | 141 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 142 | ||
| Case 7–1 | 142 | ||
| Case 7–2 | 142 | ||
| Case 7–3 | 142 | ||
| Case 7–4 | 142 | ||
| Case 7–5 | 142 | ||
| Case 7–6 | 142 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 142 | ||
| 8 Body Cavities and Diaphragm | 145 | ||
| Embryonic Body Cavity | 145 | ||
| Mesenteries | 148 | ||
| Division of Embryonic Body Cavity | 149 | ||
| Pleuropericardial Membranes | 150 | ||
| Pleuroperitoneal Membranes | 150 | ||
| Development of the Diaphragm | 151 | ||
| Septum Transversum | 151 | ||
| Pleuroperitoneal Membranes | 151 | ||
| Dorsal Mesentery of the Esophagus | 152 | ||
| Muscular Ingrowth from the Lateral Body Walls | 152 | ||
| Positional Changes and Innervation of the Diaphragm | 152 | ||
| Summary of Development of the Body Cavities and Diaphragm | 157 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 157 | ||
| Case 8–1 | 157 | ||
| Case 8–2 | 157 | ||
| Case 8–3 | 157 | ||
| Case 8–4 | 157 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 157 | ||
| 9 Pharyngeal Apparatus, Face, and Neck | 159 | ||
| Pharyngeal Arches | 159 | ||
| Pharyngeal Arch Components | 161 | ||
| Fate of Pharyngeal Arches | 162 | ||
| Derivatives of Pharyngeal Arch Cartilages | 162 | ||
| Derivatives of Pharyngeal Arch Muscles | 162 | ||
| Derivatives of Pharyngeal Arch Nerves | 162 | ||
| Pharyngeal Pouches | 162 | ||
| Derivatives of Pharyngeal Pouches | 166 | ||
| First Pharyngeal Pouch | 166 | ||
| Second Pharyngeal Pouch | 166 | ||
| Third Pharyngeal Pouch | 166 | ||
| Histogenesis of Thymus | 167 | ||
| Fourth Pharyngeal Pouch | 167 | ||
| Histogenesis of Parathyroid and Thyroid Glands | 167 | ||
| Pharyngeal Grooves | 169 | ||
| Pharyngeal Membranes | 169 | ||
| Development of Thyroid Gland | 173 | ||
| Histogenesis of Thyroid Gland | 174 | ||
| Development of Tongue | 176 | ||
| Lingual Papillae and Taste Buds | 177 | ||
| Nerve Supply of Tongue | 177 | ||
| Development of Salivary Glands | 179 | ||
| Development of Face | 179 | ||
| Summary of Facial Development | 186 | ||
| Development of Nasal Cavities | 186 | ||
| Paranasal Sinuses | 187 | ||
| Development of Palate | 188 | ||
| Primary Palate | 188 | ||
| Secondary Palate | 188 | ||
| Summary of Pharyngeal Apparatus, Face, and Neck | 196 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 197 | ||
| Case 9–1 | 197 | ||
| Case 9–2 | 197 | ||
| Case 9–3 | 197 | ||
| Case 9–4 | 197 | ||
| Case 9–5 | 197 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 197 | ||
| 10 Respiratory System | 199 | ||
| Respiratory Primordium | 199 | ||
| Development of Larynx | 200 | ||
| Development of Trachea | 202 | ||
| Development of Bronchi and Lungs | 204 | ||
| Maturation of Lungs | 206 | ||
| Pseudoglandular Stage (6 to 16 Weeks) | 206 | ||
| Canalicular Stage (16 to 26 Weeks) | 206 | ||
| Terminal Sac Stage (26 Weeks to Birth) | 206 | ||
| Alveolar Stage (32 Weeks to 8 Years) | 206 | ||
| Summary of Respiratory System | 210 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 210 | ||
| Case 10–1 | 210 | ||
| Case 10–2 | 210 | ||
| Case 10–3 | 211 | ||
| Case 10–4 | 211 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 211 | ||
| 11 Alimentary System | 213 | ||
| Foregut | 214 | ||
| Development of Esophagus | 214 | ||
| Development of Stomach | 215 | ||
| Rotation of Stomach | 215 | ||
| Mesenteries of Stomach | 215 | ||
| Omental Bursa | 215 | ||
| Development of Duodenum | 219 | ||
| Development of Liver and Biliary Apparatus | 221 | ||
| Ventral Mesentery | 223 | ||
| Development of Pancreas | 223 | ||
| Histogenesis of Pancreas | 225 | ||
| Development of Spleen | 225 | ||
| Midgut | 227 | ||
| Herniation of Midgut Loop | 227 | ||
| Rotation of Midgut Loop | 227 | ||
| Retraction of Intestinal Loops | 227 | ||
| Fixation of Intestines | 227 | ||
| Cecum and Appendix | 230 | ||
| Hindgut | 238 | ||
| Cloaca | 238 | ||
| Partitioning of Cloaca | 238 | ||
| Anal Canal | 240 | ||
| Summary of Alimentary System | 243 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 243 | ||
| Case 11–1 | 243 | ||
| Case 11–2 | 243 | ||
| Case 11–3 | 244 | ||
| Case 11–4 | 244 | ||
| Case 11–5 | 244 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 244 | ||
| 12 Urogenital System | 245 | ||
| Development of Urinary System | 247 | ||
| Development of Kidneys and Ureters | 247 | ||
| Pronephroi | 247 | ||
| Mesonephroi | 247 | ||
| Metanephroi | 248 | ||
| Positional Changes of Kidneys | 252 | ||
| Changes in Blood Supply of Kidneys | 252 | ||
| Development of Urinary Bladder | 259 | ||
| Development of Urethra | 264 | ||
| Development Of Suprarenal Glands | 264 | ||
| Development Of Genital System | 265 | ||
| Development of Gonads | 265 | ||
| Indifferent Gonads | 265 | ||
| Primordial Germ Cells | 266 | ||
| Chromosomal Basis of Sex Determination | 266 | ||
| Development of Testes | 267 | ||
| Development of Ovaries | 267 | ||
| Development of Genital Ducts | 269 | ||
| Development of Male Genital Ducts and Glands | 269 | ||
| Seminal Glands | 271 | ||
| Prostate | 271 | ||
| Bulbourethral Glands | 271 | ||
| Development of Female Genital Ducts and Glands | 271 | ||
| Auxiliary Genital Glands in Females | 271 | ||
| Development of Vagina | 271 | ||
| Vestigial Remains of Embryonic Genital Ducts | 272 | ||
| Development Of External Genitalia | 273 | ||
| Development of Male External Genitalia | 273 | ||
| Development of Female External Genitalia | 275 | ||
| Development Of Inguinal Canals | 282 | ||
| Relocation Of Testes And Ovaries | 284 | ||
| Testicular Descent | 284 | ||
| Ovarian Descent | 284 | ||
| Summary Of Urogenital System | 285 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 286 | ||
| Case 12–1 | 286 | ||
| Case 12–2 | 287 | ||
| Case 12–3 | 287 | ||
| Case 12–4 | 287 | ||
| Case 12–5 | 287 | ||
| Case 12–6 | 287 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 287 | ||
| 13 Cardiovascular System | 289 | ||
| Early Development Of The Heart And Blood Vessels | 290 | ||
| Development of Veins Associated with Embryonic Heart | 290 | ||
| Development of Inferior Vena Cava | 292 | ||
| Pharyngeal Arch Arteries and Other Branches of Dorsal Aortae | 295 | ||
| Intersegmental Arteries | 295 | ||
| Fate of Vitelline and Umbilical Arteries | 295 | ||
| Later Development Of The Heart | 295 | ||
| Circulation through the Primordial Heart | 298 | ||
| Partitioning of Primordial Heart | 300 | ||
| Partitioning of Atrioventricular Canal | 300 | ||
| Partitioning of Primordial Atrium | 300 | ||
| Changes in Sinus Venosus | 304 | ||
| Primordial Pulmonary Vein and Formation of Left Atrium | 306 | ||
| Partitioning of Primordial Ventricle | 307 | ||
| Partitioning of Bulbus Cordis and Truncus Arteriosus | 307 | ||
| Development of Cardiac Valves | 312 | ||
| Conducting System of Heart | 312 | ||
| Birth Defects Of The Heart And Great Vessels | 313 | ||
| Derivatives Of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries | 324 | ||
| Derivatives of First Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries | 324 | ||
| Derivatives of Second Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries | 324 | ||
| Derivatives of Third Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries | 325 | ||
| Derivatives of Fourth Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries | 325 | ||
| Fate of Fifth Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries | 325 | ||
| Derivatives of Sixth Pair of Pharyngeal Arch Arteries | 327 | ||
| Pharyngeal Arch Arterial Birth Defects | 327 | ||
| Fetal And Neonatal Circulation | 333 | ||
| Fetal Circulation | 333 | ||
| Transitional Neonatal Circulation | 333 | ||
| Derivatives of Fetal Vessels and Structures | 337 | ||
| Umbilical Vein and Round Ligament of Liver | 337 | ||
| Ductus Venosus and Ligamentum Venosum | 337 | ||
| Umbilical Arteries and Abdominal Ligaments | 337 | ||
| Oval Foramen and Oval Fossa | 337 | ||
| Ductus Arteriosus and Ligamentum Arteriosum | 337 | ||
| Development Of Lymphatic System | 339 | ||
| Development of Lymph Sacs and Lymphatic Ducts | 339 | ||
| Development of Thoracic Duct | 340 | ||
| Development of Lymph Nodes | 340 | ||
| Development of Lymphocytes | 340 | ||
| Development of Spleen and Tonsils | 340 | ||
| Summary Of Cardiovascular System | 340 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 341 | ||
| Case 13–1 | 341 | ||
| Case 13–2 | 341 | ||
| Case 13–3 | 341 | ||
| Case 13–4 | 342 | ||
| Case 13–5 | 342 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 342 | ||
| 14 Skeletal System | 343 | ||
| Development Of Bone And Cartilage | 343 | ||
| Histogenesis of Cartilage | 345 | ||
| Histogenesis of Bone | 345 | ||
| Membranous Ossification | 345 | ||
| Endochondral Ossification | 346 | ||
| Development Of Joints | 346 | ||
| Fibrous Joints | 346 | ||
| Cartilaginous Joints | 348 | ||
| Synovial Joints | 348 | ||
| Development Of Axial Skeleton | 348 | ||
| Development of Vertebral Column | 348 | ||
| Cartilaginous Stage of Vertebral Development | 349 | ||
| Bony Stage of Vertebral Development | 349 | ||
| Development of Ribs | 350 | ||
| Development of Sternum | 351 | ||
| Development of Cranium | 351 | ||
| Cartilaginous Neurocranium | 351 | ||
| Membranous Neurocranium | 351 | ||
| Cartilaginous Viscerocranium | 351 | ||
| Membranous Viscerocranium | 351 | ||
| Cranium of Neonate | 351 | ||
| Postnatal Growth of Cranium | 352 | ||
| Development Of Appendicular Skeleton | 357 | ||
| Summary Of Skeletal System | 360 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 360 | ||
| Case 14–1 | 360 | ||
| Case 14–2 | 360 | ||
| Case 14–3 | 360 | ||
| Case 14–4 | 360 | ||
| Case 14–5 | 360 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 360 | ||
| 15 Muscular System | 363 | ||
| Development of Skeletal Muscle | 363 | ||
| Myotomes | 365 | ||
| Pharyngeal Arch Muscles | 366 | ||
| Ocular Muscles | 366 | ||
| Tongue Muscles | 366 | ||
| Limb Muscles | 366 | ||
| Development of Smooth Muscle | 366 | ||
| Development of Cardiac Muscle | 367 | ||
| Summary of Muscular System | 369 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 369 | ||
| Case 15–1 | 369 | ||
| Case 15–2 | 369 | ||
| Case 15–3 | 369 | ||
| Case 15–4 | 369 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 369 | ||
| 16 Development of Limbs | 371 | ||
| Early Stages of Limb Development | 371 | ||
| Final Stages of Limb Development | 375 | ||
| Cutaneous Innervation of Limbs | 375 | ||
| Blood Supply of Limbs | 380 | ||
| Birth Defects of Limbs | 382 | ||
| Summary of Limb Development | 386 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 386 | ||
| Case 16–1 | 386 | ||
| Case 16–2 | 387 | ||
| Case 16–3 | 387 | ||
| Case 16–4 | 387 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 387 | ||
| 17 Nervous System | 389 | ||
| Development of Nervous System | 389 | ||
| Development of Spinal Cord | 392 | ||
| Development of Spinal Ganglia | 394 | ||
| Development of Meninges | 394 | ||
| Positional Changes of Spinal Cord | 395 | ||
| Myelination of Nerve Fibers | 398 | ||
| Birth Defects of Spinal Cord | 398 | ||
| Development of Brain | 404 | ||
| Brain Flexures | 404 | ||
| Hindbrain | 404 | ||
| Myelencephalon | 404 | ||
| Metencephalon | 405 | ||
| Choroid Plexuses and Cerebrospinal Fluid | 406 | ||
| Midbrain | 407 | ||
| Forebrain | 408 | ||
| Diencephalon | 409 | ||
| Telencephalon | 410 | ||
| Cerebral Commissures | 412 | ||
| Birth Defects of Brain | 414 | ||
| Development of Peripheral Nervous System | 423 | ||
| Spinal Nerves | 423 | ||
| Cranial Nerves | 424 | ||
| Somatic Efferent Cranial Nerves | 424 | ||
| Nerves of Pharyngeal Arches | 424 | ||
| Special Sensory Nerves | 425 | ||
| Development of Autonomic Nervous System | 425 | ||
| Sympathetic Nervous System | 425 | ||
| Parasympathetic Nervous System | 426 | ||
| Summary of Nervous System | 426 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 426 | ||
| Case 17–1 | 426 | ||
| Case 17–2 | 426 | ||
| Case 17–3 | 427 | ||
| Case 17–4 | 427 | ||
| Case 17–5 | 427 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 427 | ||
| 18 Development of Eyes and Ears | 429 | ||
| Development of Eyes and Related Structures | 429 | ||
| Development of Retina | 431 | ||
| Development of Ciliary Body | 435 | ||
| Development of Iris | 435 | ||
| Development of Lens | 437 | ||
| Development of Aqueous Chambers | 438 | ||
| Development of Cornea | 440 | ||
| Development of Choroid and Sclera | 440 | ||
| Development of Eyelids | 440 | ||
| Development of Lacrimal Glands | 441 | ||
| Development of Ears | 441 | ||
| Development of Internal Ear | 441 | ||
| Development of Middle Ear | 443 | ||
| Development of External Ear | 444 | ||
| Summary of Development of Eyes | 448 | ||
| Summary of Development of Ears | 448 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 448 | ||
| Case 18–1 | 448 | ||
| Case 18–2 | 448 | ||
| Case 18–3 | 448 | ||
| Case 18–4 | 449 | ||
| Case 18–5 | 449 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 449 | ||
| 19 Integumentary System | 451 | ||
| Development of Skin and Appendages | 451 | ||
| Epidermis | 452 | ||
| Dermis | 454 | ||
| Development of Glands | 454 | ||
| Sebaceous Glands | 454 | ||
| Sweat Glands | 454 | ||
| Mammary Glands | 456 | ||
| Development of Hairs | 459 | ||
| Development of Nails | 460 | ||
| Development of Teeth | 460 | ||
| Bud Stage of Tooth Development | 462 | ||
| Cap Stage of Tooth Development | 462 | ||
| Bell Stage of Tooth Development | 463 | ||
| Tooth Eruption | 463 | ||
| Variations of Tooth Shape | 466 | ||
| Summary of Integumentary System | 468 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 468 | ||
| Case 19–1 | 468 | ||
| Case 19–2 | 468 | ||
| Case 19–3 | 468 | ||
| Case 19–4 | 468 | ||
| Case 19–5 | 468 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 468 | ||
| 20 Human Birth Defects | 471 | ||
| Classification of Birth Defects | 471 | ||
| Teratology: Study of Abnormal Development | 472 | ||
| Birth Defects Caused by Genetic Factors* | 472 | ||
| Numerical Chromosomal Abnormalities | 473 | ||
| Turner Syndrome | 478 | ||
| Trisomy of Autosomes | 478 | ||
| Trisomy of Sex Chromosomes | 478 | ||
| Structural Chromosomal Abnormalities | 481 | ||
| Translocation | 481 | ||
| Deletion | 481 | ||
| Birth Defects Caused by Mutant Genes | 484 | ||
| Developmental Signaling Pathways | 486 | ||
| Birth Defects Caused By Environmental Factors | 487 | ||
| Principles of Teratogenesis | 487 | ||
| Critical Periods of Human Development | 487 | ||
| Dose of the Drug or Chemical | 490 | ||
| Genotype (Genetic Constitution) of the Embryo | 491 | ||
| Human Teratogens | 491 | ||
| Drugs as Teratogens | 491 | ||
| Cigarette Smoking | 491 | ||
| Alcohol | 492 | ||
| Androgens and Progestogens | 492 | ||
| Antibiotics | 493 | ||
| Anticoagulants | 493 | ||
| Anticonvulsants | 493 | ||
| Antineoplastic Agents | 493 | ||
| Corticosteroids | 494 | ||
| Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors | 494 | ||
| Insulin and Hypoglycemic Drugs | 494 | ||
| Retinoic Acid (Vitamin A) | 494 | ||
| Analgesics | 494 | ||
| Thyroid Drugs | 495 | ||
| Tranquilizers | 495 | ||
| Psychotropic Drugs | 495 | ||
| Illicit Drugs | 495 | ||
| Environmental Chemicals as Teratogens | 495 | ||
| Organic Mercury | 496 | ||
| Lead | 496 | ||
| Polychlorinated Biphenyls | 496 | ||
| Infectious Agents as Teratogens | 496 | ||
| Rubella (German Measles) | 496 | ||
| Cytomegalovirus | 496 | ||
| Herpes Simplex Virus | 496 | ||
| Varicella (Chickenpox) | 496 | ||
| Human Immunodeficiency Virus | 496 | ||
| Toxoplasmosis | 497 | ||
| Congenital Syphilis | 497 | ||
| Radiation as a Teratogen | 498 | ||
| Ultrasonic Waves | 498 | ||
| Maternal Factors as Teratogens | 498 | ||
| Mechanical Factors as Teratogens | 499 | ||
| Birth Defects Caused By Multifactorial Inheritance | 499 | ||
| Summary of Human Birth Defects | 499 | ||
| Clinically Oriented Problems | 500 | ||
| Case 20–1 | 500 | ||
| Case 20–2 | 500 | ||
| Case 20–3 | 500 | ||
| Case 20–4 | 500 | ||
| Case 20–5 | 500 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 500 | ||
| 21 Common Signaling Pathways Used During Development | 503 | ||
| Intercellular Communication | 504 | ||
| Gap Junctions | 504 | ||
| Cell Adhesion Molecules | 505 | ||
| Cadherins | 505 | ||
| Immunoglobulin Superfamily | 505 | ||
| Morphogens | 506 | ||
| Retinoic Acid | 506 | ||
| Transforming Growth Factor β/Bone Morphogenetic Protein | 506 | ||
| Hedgehog | 507 | ||
| Wnt/β-Catenin Pathway | 507 | ||
| Receptor Tyrosine Kinases | 509 | ||
| Common Features | 509 | ||
| Regulation of Angiogenesis by Receptor Tyrosine Kinases | 510 | ||
| Notch-Delta Pathway | 510 | ||
| Transcription Factors | 511 | ||
| Hox/Homeobox Proteins | 511 | ||
| Pax Genes | 511 | ||
| Basic Helix-Loop-Helix Transcription Factors | 512 | ||
| Epigenetics | 512 | ||
| Histone Acetylation | 512 | ||
| DNA Methylation | 512 | ||
| Stem Cells: Differentiation Versus Pluripotency | 513 | ||
| Summary of Common Signaling Pathways Used During Development | 514 | ||
| References and Suggested Reading | 514 | ||
| Appendix Discussion of Clinically Oriented Problems | 516 | ||
| Chapter 1 | 516 | ||
| Chapter 2 | 516 | ||
| Chapter 3 | 517 | ||
| Chapter 4 | 517 | ||
| Chapter 5 | 518 | ||
| Chapter 6 | 518 | ||
| Chapter 7 | 519 | ||
| Chapter 8 | 519 | ||
| Chapter 9 | 519 | ||
| Chapter 10 | 520 | ||
| Chapter 11 | 520 | ||
| Chapter 12 | 521 | ||
| Chapter 13 | 522 | ||
| Chapter 14 | 522 | ||
| Chapter 15 | 523 | ||
| Chapter 16 | 523 | ||
| Chapter 17 | 523 | ||
| Chapter 18 | 524 | ||
| Chapter 19 | 525 | ||
| Chapter 20 | 525 | ||
| Index | 526 | ||
| A | 526 | ||
| B | 527 | ||
| C | 528 | ||
| D | 530 | ||
| E | 531 | ||
| F | 531 | ||
| G | 532 | ||
| H | 532 | ||
| I | 533 | ||
| J | 533 | ||
| K | 533 | ||
| L | 533 | ||
| M | 534 | ||
| N | 535 | ||
| O | 535 | ||
| P | 535 | ||
| Q | 537 | ||
| R | 537 | ||
| S | 537 | ||
| T | 538 | ||
| U | 539 | ||
| V | 539 | ||
| W | 540 | ||
| Y | 540 | ||
| Z | 540 |