Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Based on NAVTA-approved guidelines, Elsevier’s Veterinary Assisting Textbook by Margi Sirois offers comprehensive coverage of the knowledge and skills you need for a successful career in veterinary assisting. You’ll learn about the role of the veterinary assistant and how to perform key responsibilities of the job, including assisting the veterinary technician and the veterinarian by restraining animals, setting up equipment and supplies, cleaning and maintaining practice and laboratory facilities, and feeding and exercising patients.
- Targeted coverage addresses only those topics that are relevant to veterinary assisting.
- Authoritative content covers everything you need to know to pass the Approved Veterinary Assistant (AVA) exam and succeed in clinical practice.
- Authors and contributors are leading experts in veterinary medicine, veterinary technology, and veterinary assisting.
- Full-color format features a wealth of illustrations and photographs that clarify key concepts and enhance learning.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Elsevier's Veterinary Assisting Textbook | i | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Contributing Authors | vi | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| Workbook | vii | ||
| Evolve Assets for Instructors | vii | ||
| Acknowledgments | vii | ||
| Table of Contents | viii | ||
| 1 Overview of the Veterinary Profession | 1 | ||
| Outline | 1 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 1 | ||
| Key Terms | 2 | ||
| History of Veterinary Medicine | 2 | ||
| Veterinary Health Care Team | 2 | ||
| Members of the Veterinary Health Care Team | 3 | ||
| Students | 3 | ||
| Groomers | 3 | ||
| Kennel Assistants | 4 | ||
| Veterinary Assistants | 4 | ||
| Veterinary Technicians | 5 | ||
| Veterinary Technologists | 5 | ||
| Veterinary Technician Specialties | 6 | ||
| Receptionists | 6 | ||
| Office Managers | 7 | ||
| Veterinarians | 7 | ||
| Practice Managers | 8 | ||
| Hospital Administrators | 8 | ||
| Team | 9 | ||
| Personal Qualifications | 9 | ||
| Professional Organizations and Resources | 10 | ||
| Types of Veterinary Practices | 10 | ||
| Companion Animal Practice | 11 | ||
| Mobile Pet Practice | 11 | ||
| Referral Practice | 11 | ||
| Exotic Animal Practice | 12 | ||
| Mixed Practice | 12 | ||
| Veterinary Practice Design | 12 | ||
| Creating Comfortable Reception Areas | 12 | ||
| Creating Comfortable Examination Rooms | 12 | ||
| Consultation Rooms | 13 | ||
| Retail Area | 13 | ||
| Middle Area | 13 | ||
| Treatment Area | 14 | ||
| Ethics | 15 | ||
| Ethics of Working With Animals | 15 | ||
| Ethics of the Veterinary Profession | 16 | ||
| Professional Ethics | 16 | ||
| Ethics of Service to the Public | 16 | ||
| Laws | 17 | ||
| Laws That Ensure the Quality of Veterinary Service | 17 | ||
| Practice Acts | 17 | ||
| Common Law Malpractice | 17 | ||
| Laws That Provide a Safe Business Environment | 18 | ||
| Occupational Safety and Health Act | 18 | ||
| Common Law Ordinary Negligence | 18 | ||
| Medical Waste Management Laws | 18 | ||
| Laws That Maintain a Nonhostile Working Environment | 19 | ||
| Laws That Govern Labor | 19 | ||
| Laws Governing Controlled Substances | 19 | ||
| Occupational Health and Safety in Veterinary Practice | 19 | ||
| Safety in the Workplace | 20 | ||
| Machinery and Moving Parts | 20 | ||
| Slips and Falls | 20 | ||
| Lifting | 20 | ||
| Storing Supplies | 20 | ||
| Toxic Substances | 20 | ||
| Heating Devices | 20 | ||
| Eye Safety | 20 | ||
| Hazards of Animal Handling | 21 | ||
| Protective Gear | 21 | ||
| Hazards of Bathing and Dipping | 21 | ||
| Ventilation | 21 | ||
| Chemical Storage | 21 | ||
| Zoonotic Hazards | 21 | ||
| Rabies | 22 | ||
| Bacterial Infections | 22 | ||
| Fungal Infections | 22 | ||
| Parasitism | 22 | ||
| Biologics | 22 | ||
| Radiation Hazards | 23 | ||
| Radiation Safety | 23 | ||
| Developing Chemicals | 23 | ||
| Anesthetic Hazards | 23 | ||
| Hazards of Compressed Gases | 24 | ||
| Hazards of Sharp Objects | 24 | ||
| Chemical Hazards | 24 | ||
| Hazardous Materials Plan | 24 | ||
| Material Safety Data Sheet System | 25 | ||
| Container Labels | 25 | ||
| Container Caps | 25 | ||
| Mixing Chemicals | 25 | ||
| Chemical Spills | 25 | ||
| Handling Ethylene Oxide | 25 | ||
| Handling Formalin | 25 | ||
| Electrical Hazards | 26 | ||
| Fire and Evacuation | 26 | ||
| Personal Safety | 26 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 27 | ||
| 2 Office Procedures and Client Relations | 28 | ||
| Outline | 28 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 28 | ||
| Key Terms | 28 | ||
| Front Office Procedures | 29 | ||
| Telephone Etiquette | 29 | ||
| Scheduling Appointments | 30 | ||
| Reminders and Recall Systems | 31 | ||
| Greeting Clients | 33 | ||
| Cleanliness | 33 | ||
| Commonly Used Forms | 33 | ||
| Invoicing Clients | 42 | ||
| Monthly Statements | 43 | ||
| Outstanding Debt Collection | 44 | ||
| Managing and Processing Mail | 44 | ||
| The Office Visit | 45 | ||
| Admitting Patients | 45 | ||
| Discharging Patients | 46 | ||
| Pet Health Insurance | 47 | ||
| Medical Records | 49 | ||
| Record Format | 51 | ||
| POMR and SOAP | 51 | ||
| Standard Operating Procedures | 53 | ||
| Inventory Management | 53 | ||
| Reorder Point | 53 | ||
| Product Pricing | 54 | ||
| Labeling Prescription Items | 55 | ||
| Computer and Software Management | 55 | ||
| Client Relations | 56 | ||
| Body Language | 57 | ||
| Folded Arms | 57 | ||
| Body Posture | 57 | ||
| Eye Contact | 58 | ||
| The Human-Animal Bond | 58 | ||
| Grief Counseling | 59 | ||
| Stages of Grief | 60 | ||
| Denial | 60 | ||
| Bargaining | 60 | ||
| Anger | 60 | ||
| Guilt | 60 | ||
| Sorrow | 60 | ||
| Resolution | 60 | ||
| Loneliness | 60 | ||
| Replacement | 60 | ||
| Assisting Bereaved Pet Owners | 61 | ||
| Acknowledging the Loss | 61 | ||
| Reflection | 61 | ||
| Validating the Loss | 62 | ||
| Attending | 62 | ||
| Effective Listening | 62 | ||
| Achieving Closure | 62 | ||
| Effects of Patient Loss on Staff | 63 | ||
| Compounded Loss | 63 | ||
| Recognizing and Responding to Signals | 63 | ||
| Referring to Mental Health Professionals | 64 | ||
| Summary | 64 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 64 | ||
| 3 Medical Terminology | 65 | ||
| Outline | 65 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 65 | ||
| Key Terms | 65 | ||
| Introduction to Word Parts | 66 | ||
| Prefix | 66 | ||
| Root Word | 66 | ||
| Combining Form | 66 | ||
| Combining Vowel | 66 | ||
| Combining Vowel Added to a Suffix | 66 | ||
| Compound Word | 66 | ||
| Using Word Parts to Form Words | 66 | ||
| Use of the Prefix | 66 | ||
| Suffix | 67 | ||
| Compound Word | 67 | ||
| Prefix and Suffix | 67 | ||
| Prefix, Root Word, and Suffix | 67 | ||
| Defining Medical Terms Using Word Analysis | 67 | ||
| Combining Forms for Body Parts and Anatomy | 68 | ||
| Suffixes and Prefixes | 69 | ||
| Suffixes for Surgical Procedures | 69 | ||
| Suffixes for Diseases or Conditions | 69 | ||
| Prefixes for Diseases or Conditions | 70 | ||
| Plural Endings | 71 | ||
| Suffixes for Instruments, Procedures, and Machines | 71 | ||
| Terms for Direction, Position, and Movement | 71 | ||
| Dental Terminology | 73 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 73 | ||
| 4 Anatomy and Physiology | 74 | ||
| Outline | 74 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 74 | ||
| Key Terms | 74 | ||
| Cells | 75 | ||
| Epithelial Tissue | 76 | ||
| Connective Tissue | 76 | ||
| Skeleton | 78 | ||
| Types of Bones | 78 | ||
| Long Bones | 78 | ||
| Flat Bones | 78 | ||
| Small Bones | 78 | ||
| Irregular Bones | 78 | ||
| Sesamoid Bones | 78 | ||
| Pneumatic Bones | 78 | ||
| Common Bone Features | 78 | ||
| Axial Skeleton | 78 | ||
| Appendicular Skeleton | 80 | ||
| Visceral Skeleton | 81 | ||
| Joints | 81 | ||
| Integument | 82 | ||
| Skin | 82 | ||
| Hair | 83 | ||
| Claws and Hooves | 83 | ||
| Circulatory System | 83 | ||
| Blood Vascular System | 84 | ||
| Blood Circulation Pathways | 85 | ||
| Systemic Circulation | 85 | ||
| Pulmonary Circulation | 85 | ||
| Heart | 85 | ||
| Cardiac Cycle | 86 | ||
| Blood | 86 | ||
| Role of White Blood Cells in Immunity | 87 | ||
| Granulocytes | 87 | ||
| Agranulocytes | 88 | ||
| Antibodies | 88 | ||
| Fetal Circulation | 88 | ||
| Lymphatic Vascular System | 89 | ||
| Respiratory System | 90 | ||
| Upper Respiratory Tract | 90 | ||
| Lower Respiratory Tract | 91 | ||
| Respiratory Mechanisms | 91 | ||
| Thorax | 91 | ||
| Inspiration | 91 | ||
| Exchange of Gases | 91 | ||
| Expiration | 92 | ||
| Control of Breathing | 92 | ||
| Digestive System | 92 | ||
| Mouth | 92 | ||
| Dental formula | 93 | ||
| Esophagus | 93 | ||
| Stomach | 93 | ||
| Intestine | 93 | ||
| Accessory Digestive Organs | 94 | ||
| Nervous System | 94 | ||
| Central Nervous System | 94 | ||
| Peripheral Nervous System | 95 | ||
| Spinal Nerves | 95 | ||
| Cranial Nerves | 95 | ||
| Autonomic Nervous System | 96 | ||
| Muscular System | 96 | ||
| Skeletal Muscle | 96 | ||
| Cardiac Muscle | 98 | ||
| Smooth Muscle | 98 | ||
| Senses | 98 | ||
| General Senses | 99 | ||
| Special Senses | 99 | ||
| Gustatory Sense | 99 | ||
| Olfactory Sense | 99 | ||
| Auditory Sense | 99 | ||
| Vestibular Sense | 100 | ||
| Visual Sense | 100 | ||
| Endocrine System | 101 | ||
| Hypothalamus | 102 | ||
| Pituitary Gland | 102 | ||
| Anterior Pituitary Gland | 102 | ||
| Posterior Pituitary Gland | 102 | ||
| Thyroid Gland | 102 | ||
| Parathyroid Glands | 102 | ||
| Adrenal Glands | 103 | ||
| Adrenocortical Hormones | 103 | ||
| Adrenal Medullary Hormones | 104 | ||
| Pancreas | 104 | ||
| Gonads | 104 | ||
| Urinary System | 104 | ||
| Kidneys | 104 | ||
| Ureters | 105 | ||
| Urinary Bladder | 105 | ||
| Urethra | 105 | ||
| Reproductive System | 106 | ||
| Male Reproductive System | 106 | ||
| Female Reproductive System | 107 | ||
| Female Reproduction Physiology: Nonpregnant Animals | 108 | ||
| Anestrus | 108 | ||
| Proestrus | 108 | ||
| Estrus | 108 | ||
| Metestrus | 108 | ||
| Diestrus | 108 | ||
| Reproductive Physiologic Patterns | 108 | ||
| Bitches | 108 | ||
| Queens | 108 | ||
| Fertilization and Pregnancy | 108 | ||
| Parturition | 109 | ||
| Milk Production | 110 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 110 | ||
| 5 Pharmacology and Pharmacy | 111 | ||
| Outline | 111 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 112 | ||
| Key Terms | 112 | ||
| Drug Names | 112 | ||
| Dosage Forms | 113 | ||
| Solid and Semisolid Dosage Forms | 113 | ||
| Liquid Dosage Forms | 113 | ||
| Injectable Drugs: Needles and Syringes | 113 | ||
| Syringes | 114 | ||
| Tuberculin Syringe | 114 | ||
| Insulin Syringe | 114 | ||
| Needles | 114 | ||
| Prescriptions and Dispensing Medication | 115 | ||
| Writing Prescriptions | 115 | ||
| Components of a Prescription | 115 | ||
| Containers for Dispensing Medication | 115 | ||
| The Metric System | 115 | ||
| Calculating Drug Doses | 117 | ||
| Storing and Handling Drugs in the Pharmacy | 119 | ||
| Storing and Prescribing Controlled Substances | 119 | ||
| Handling Toxic Drugs | 120 | ||
| Therapeutic Range | 120 | ||
| Dosage Regimen | 120 | ||
| Routes of Administration | 121 | ||
| Movement of Drug Molecules in the Body | 121 | ||
| How Drugs Exert Their Effects | 122 | ||
| Drugs Affecting the Gastrointestinal Tract | 122 | ||
| Emetics | 122 | ||
| Antiemetics | 123 | ||
| Antidiarrheals | 123 | ||
| Adsorbents and Protectants | 124 | ||
| Laxatives, Lubricants, and Stool Softeners | 124 | ||
| Antacids | 124 | ||
| Antiulcer Drugs | 124 | ||
| Appetite-Stimulating Drugs | 125 | ||
| Drugs Affecting the Cardiovascular System | 125 | ||
| Antiarrhythmic Drugs | 125 | ||
| Positive Inotropic Agents | 126 | ||
| Vasodilators | 126 | ||
| Diuretics | 126 | ||
| Drugs Affecting the Respiratory System | 127 | ||
| Antitussives | 127 | ||
| Mucolytics, Expectorants, and Decongestants | 127 | ||
| Bronchodilators | 128 | ||
| Drugs Affecting the Endocrine System | 128 | ||
| Drugs Used to Treat Hypothyroidism | 128 | ||
| Drugs Used to Treat Hyperthyroidism | 128 | ||
| Endocrine Pancreatic Drugs | 129 | ||
| Drugs Used to Treat Hypoadrenocorticism | 129 | ||
| Drugs Used to Treat Hyperadrenocorticism | 129 | ||
| Drugs Affecting Reproduction | 129 | ||
| Drugs Affecting the Nervous System | 130 | ||
| Anesthetics | 130 | ||
| Tranquilizers and Sedatives | 130 | ||
| Analgesics | 131 | ||
| Anticonvulsants | 131 | ||
| Central Nervous System Stimulants | 132 | ||
| Antimicrobials | 132 | ||
| Penicillins | 132 | ||
| Cephalosporins | 133 | ||
| Bacitracins | 133 | ||
| Aminoglycosides | 133 | ||
| Fluoroquinolones | 133 | ||
| Tetracyclines | 133 | ||
| Sulfonamides and Potentiated Sulfonamides | 133 | ||
| Lincosamides | 134 | ||
| Macrolides | 134 | ||
| Metronidazole | 134 | ||
| Nitrofurans | 134 | ||
| Chloramphenicol and Fluorfenicol | 134 | ||
| Rifampin | 134 | ||
| Antifungals | 134 | ||
| Amphotericin B and Nystatin | 134 | ||
| Flucytosine | 134 | ||
| Fluconazole, Ketoconazole, and Itraconazole | 134 | ||
| Griseofulvin | 134 | ||
| Antiparasitics | 135 | ||
| Internal Antiparasitics | 135 | ||
| External Antiparasitics | 135 | ||
| Anti-Inflammatories | 136 | ||
| Glucocorticoids | 136 | ||
| Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs | 137 | ||
| Other Anti-inflammatories | 137 | ||
| Disinfectants and Antiseptics | 138 | ||
| Phenols | 138 | ||
| Alcohols | 138 | ||
| Quaternary Ammonium Compounds | 138 | ||
| Chlorine Compounds | 138 | ||
| Iodophors | 139 | ||
| Biguanides | 139 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 139 | ||
| 6 Animal Behavior and Restraint | 140 | ||
| Outline | 140 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 140 | ||
| Key Terms | 140 | ||
| Dog and Cat Breeds | 141 | ||
| What Is Behavior and Where Does It Come From? | 141 | ||
| Preventing Behavior Problems in Companion Animals | 143 | ||
| House Training | 143 | ||
| Dogs | 143 | ||
| Cats | 144 | ||
| Preventing Destructive Behavior | 145 | ||
| By Cats | 145 | ||
| Scratching Posts | 146 | ||
| Orientation | 146 | ||
| Texture | 146 | ||
| By Dogs | 147 | ||
| Appealing Toys | 147 | ||
| Preventing Aggressive Behavior Problems | 148 | ||
| Puppy Tests | 148 | ||
| Castration | 149 | ||
| Socialization | 149 | ||
| Providing Services for Problems | 149 | ||
| Problem Prevention | 149 | ||
| Problem Resolution | 150 | ||
| Referring Cases to Behavior Specialists | 150 | ||
| Evaluating Referral Resources | 150 | ||
| Making the Referral | 152 | ||
| Behavior Problems in Exotic Animals | 153 | ||
| Restraint and Handling of Dogs | 153 | ||
| Canine Body Language | 153 | ||
| Danger Potential | 153 | ||
| Restraint Devices | 153 | ||
| Mechanical Devices | 153 | ||
| Leash | 153 | ||
| Gauntlet | 154 | ||
| Muzzle | 154 | ||
| Catchpole | 154 | ||
| Voice | 154 | ||
| Mobility-Limiting Devices | 154 | ||
| Special Handling | 156 | ||
| Puppies | 156 | ||
| Pregnant Bitches | 156 | ||
| Old Dogs | 156 | ||
| Nervous Dogs | 156 | ||
| Aggressive Dogs | 157 | ||
| Injured Dogs | 157 | ||
| Restraint Techniques | 157 | ||
| Removing Dogs from Cages or Runs | 157 | ||
| Nonaggressive, Nonfearful Dogs | 157 | ||
| Fearful and Aggressive Dogs | 157 | ||
| Lifting a Dog | 158 | ||
| Standing Restraint | 158 | ||
| Crowding | 159 | ||
| Sitting or Sternal Recumbency | 160 | ||
| Lateral Recumbency | 160 | ||
| Dorsal Recumbency | 160 | ||
| Snubbing | 160 | ||
| Restraint and Handling of Cats | 160 | ||
| Feline Behavior | 160 | ||
| Danger Potential | 162 | ||
| Mechanical Devices | 162 | ||
| Towel and Blanket | 162 | ||
| Feline Restraint Bags | 163 | ||
| Muzzles | 164 | ||
| Gauntlet | 165 | ||
| Distraction Techniques | 165 | ||
| Caveman Pats | 165 | ||
| Puffs of Air | 166 | ||
| Restraint Techniques | 166 | ||
| Removal from a Carrier | 166 | ||
| Removal from a Cage | 166 | ||
| Sitting or Sternal Recumbency | 166 | ||
| Restraint for Cephalic Venipunctures | 167 | ||
| Applying a Tourniquet for Cephalic Venipuncture | 168 | ||
| Restraint for Jugular Venipuncture | 168 | ||
| Lateral Recumbency | 170 | ||
| Dorsal Recumbency | 170 | ||
| Chemical Restraint | 170 | ||
| Cat Lasso | 170 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 172 | ||
| Behavior Organizations | 172 | ||
| 7 Animal Husbandry and Nutrition | 173 | ||
| Outline | 173 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 173 | ||
| Key Terms | 174 | ||
| Husbandry | 174 | ||
| Temperature, Light, and Ventilation | 174 | ||
| Housing | 175 | ||
| Animal Identification | 175 | ||
| Housekeeping | 175 | ||
| Disinfection and Sanitation | 176 | ||
| Attending to the Psychological Needs of Dogs and Cats | 177 | ||
| Animal Nutrition | 177 | ||
| Energy-Producing Nutrients | 177 | ||
| Proteins | 177 | ||
| Fats | 178 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 178 | ||
| Non–Energy-Producing Nutrients | 178 | ||
| Water | 178 | ||
| Vitamins | 178 | ||
| Minerals | 178 | ||
| Feeding Considerations for Dogs | 179 | ||
| Feeding Methods | 179 | ||
| Portion Control | 179 | ||
| Free Choice | 180 | ||
| Time Control | 180 | ||
| Feeding the Gestating or Lactating Dog | 180 | ||
| Feeding Puppies | 180 | ||
| Feeding Adult Dogs | 181 | ||
| Feeding Active Dogs | 181 | ||
| Feeding Geriatric Dogs | 182 | ||
| Feeding Overweight Dogs | 182 | ||
| Feeding Considerations for Cats | 183 | ||
| Feeding Kittens | 183 | ||
| Feeding Adult Cats | 183 | ||
| Feeding Cats With Lower Urinary Tract Disease | 183 | ||
| Feeding Geriatric Cats | 183 | ||
| Feeding the Gestating and Lactating Cat | 183 | ||
| Pet Food Considerations | 183 | ||
| Determining Whether a Pet Food Produces the Desired Results | 185 | ||
| How to Choose Which Pet Food to Feed | 185 | ||
| Determining Whether a Pet Should Be Allowed Free Feeding | 186 | ||
| Determining Whether It Is Better to Feed Canned or Dry Food | 186 | ||
| Nutritional Support | 186 | ||
| For Ill or Debilitated Patients | 186 | ||
| Enteral Nutritional Support | 187 | ||
| Enteral Nutrition Daily Caloric Requirements | 188 | ||
| Parenteral Nutritional Support | 190 | ||
| Common Diseases | 191 | ||
| Terminology | 195 | ||
| Fever, Inflammation, and Response to Injury | 195 | ||
| Signs of Inflammation | 195 | ||
| Healing and Repair of Damaged Tissues | 196 | ||
| Pathogens | 196 | ||
| Parasites | 196 | ||
| Bacteria | 196 | ||
| Viruses | 196 | ||
| Nonpathogens | 197 | ||
| Immune Response | 197 | ||
| Zoonotic Diseases | 197 | ||
| Disease Transmission | 197 | ||
| Control of Zoonotic Diseases | 200 | ||
| Vaccination and Preventive Medications | 200 | ||
| Vaccination | 201 | ||
| Vaccination of Dogs | 201 | ||
| Vaccination of Cats | 208 | ||
| Antibody Titers Instead of Vaccination | 208 | ||
| Use of Preventive Medication | 208 | ||
| Factors Predisposing to Disease | 208 | ||
| Genetic Factors | 208 | ||
| Dietary Factors | 208 | ||
| Environmental Factors | 215 | ||
| Metabolic Factors | 215 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 215 | ||
| 8 Animal Care and Nursing | 216 | ||
| Outline | 216 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 216 | ||
| Key Terms | 217 | ||
| Patient History and Client Interaction | 217 | ||
| Communicating With Clients | 217 | ||
| Obtaining a History | 218 | ||
| Introductory Statement | 218 | ||
| Patient Characteristics | 218 | ||
| Origin, Prior Ownership, and Current Environment | 218 | ||
| Past Medical History | 219 | ||
| Vaccination Status | 219 | ||
| Presenting Complaint | 219 | ||
| History of Presenting Complaint | 219 | ||
| Concluding the History | 220 | ||
| Physical Examination | 220 | ||
| Monitoring Vital Signs | 220 | ||
| Auscultation | 220 | ||
| Weight | 222 | ||
| Body Temperature | 222 | ||
| Pulse | 224 | ||
| Respiration | 224 | ||
| Mucous Membrane Color | 225 | ||
| Capillary Refill Time | 225 | ||
| Urine Production | 226 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Monitoring | 227 | ||
| Nutritional Support | 228 | ||
| Grooming and Skin Care | 228 | ||
| Bathing | 228 | ||
| Skin Care | 229 | ||
| Nail Trimming | 229 | ||
| Anal Sac Care | 231 | ||
| Ear Care | 231 | ||
| Administering Medications | 232 | ||
| Topical Administration | 232 | ||
| Oral Administration | 232 | ||
| Rectal Administration | 234 | ||
| Nasal Administration | 234 | ||
| Ophthalmic Application | 234 | ||
| Otic Application | 235 | ||
| Parenteral Administration | 236 | ||
| Intradermal Administration | 236 | ||
| Subcutaneous Administration | 236 | ||
| Intramuscular Administration | 237 | ||
| Intravenous Administration | 238 | ||
| Intraosseous and Intraperitoneal Administration | 239 | ||
| Intravenous Catheterization | 239 | ||
| Winged Infusion (Butterfly) Catheters | 239 | ||
| Over-the-Needle Peripheral Catheters | 240 | ||
| Intravenous Catheter Care | 241 | ||
| Urinary Tract Catheterization | 241 | ||
| Gastric Intubation | 242 | ||
| Fluid Therapy | 242 | ||
| Wound Care and Bandaging | 243 | ||
| Wound Contamination and Infection | 243 | ||
| Wound Categories | 243 | ||
| Use of Antibacterials | 244 | ||
| First Aid | 244 | ||
| Wound Assessment | 244 | ||
| Clipping | 244 | ||
| Scrubbing | 245 | ||
| Lavage | 245 | ||
| Anesthesia and Analgesia | 246 | ||
| Débridement | 246 | ||
| Drainage | 247 | ||
| Wound Closure | 247 | ||
| Nonclosure | 248 | ||
| Covering Wounds | 248 | ||
| Principles of Bandage Application | 248 | ||
| Bandage Components | 249 | ||
| Primary Layer | 249 | ||
| Secondary Layer | 250 | ||
| Tertiary Layer | 251 | ||
| Nursing Care for Recumbent Patients | 251 | ||
| Turning | 252 | ||
| Padding | 252 | ||
| Euthanasia Methods | 252 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 253 | ||
| 9 Anesthesia and Surgical Assisting | 254 | ||
| Outline | 254 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 254 | ||
| Key Terms | 255 | ||
| Surgery Suite | 255 | ||
| Preparation Area | 255 | ||
| Scrub Area | 255 | ||
| Surgery Room | 256 | ||
| Principles of Asepsis | 256 | ||
| Contamination and Infection | 256 | ||
| Rules of Aseptic Technique | 257 | ||
| Sterilization and Disinfection | 257 | ||
| Mode of Action | 257 | ||
| Quality Control for Sterilization and Disinfection | 257 | ||
| Indicators | 258 | ||
| Biologic Testing | 258 | ||
| Steam Sterilization | 259 | ||
| Surgical Instruments | 260 | ||
| Scalpels and Blades | 260 | ||
| Laser Scalpel | 260 | ||
| Electroscalpel | 260 | ||
| Scissors | 261 | ||
| Needle Holders | 261 | ||
| Forceps | 261 | ||
| Tissue Forceps | 261 | ||
| Hemostatic Forceps | 262 | ||
| Hemostatic Techniques and Materials | 262 | ||
| Retractors | 263 | ||
| Miscellaneous Instruments | 263 | ||
| Sutures and Other Materials Used in Wound Closure | 263 | ||
| Sutures | 263 | ||
| Suture Characteristics | 263 | ||
| Absorbable Suture Materials | 264 | ||
| Surgical Gut | 264 | ||
| Synthetic Absorbable Materials | 264 | ||
| Nonabsorbable Suture Materials | 264 | ||
| Organic Nonabsorbable Materials | 264 | ||
| Synthetic Nonabsorbable Materials | 265 | ||
| Metallic Sutures | 265 | ||
| Suture Needles | 265 | ||
| Other Materials | 265 | ||
| Tissue Adhesives | 265 | ||
| Skin Staples | 266 | ||
| Surgical Mesh | 266 | ||
| Care and Maintenance of Surgical Instruments and Supplies | 266 | ||
| Instrument Cleaning | 267 | ||
| Instrument Lubricating and Autoclaving | 267 | ||
| Wrapping Instrument Packs | 268 | ||
| Sterilization | 268 | ||
| Gas Sterilization | 268 | ||
| Cold Chemical Sterilization | 270 | ||
| Folding and Wrapping Gowns and Drapes | 270 | ||
| Gowns | 270 | ||
| Drapes | 272 | ||
| Storing Sterilized Items | 272 | ||
| Basic Surgical Terminology | 273 | ||
| Incisions | 273 | ||
| Abdominal Incisions | 273 | ||
| Thoracic Incisions | 274 | ||
| Common Surgical Procedures | 275 | ||
| Soft Tissue Procedures | 275 | ||
| Orthopedic (Bone) Procedures | 275 | ||
| Preoperative and Postoperative Considerations | 275 | ||
| Preoperative Evaluation | 275 | ||
| Patient Evaluation | 275 | ||
| Patient Characteristics | 275 | ||
| Medical History | 275 | ||
| Physical Examination | 276 | ||
| Diagnostic Testing | 276 | ||
| Patient Preparation | 276 | ||
| Preparation of the Operative Site | 277 | ||
| Hair Removal and Skin Scrubbing | 278 | ||
| Positioning | 279 | ||
| Sterile Skin Preparation | 279 | ||
| Preparation of the Surgical Team | 280 | ||
| Surgical Attire | 280 | ||
| Surgical Scrub | 281 | ||
| Gowning | 283 | ||
| Gloving | 283 | ||
| Closed Gloving | 283 | ||
| Open Gloving | 284 | ||
| Assisted Gloving | 284 | ||
| Glove Removal During Surgery | 284 | ||
| Anesthetic Equipment and Supplies | 285 | ||
| Supplies for Intravenous Fluid Administration | 285 | ||
| Endotracheal Tubes | 286 | ||
| Laryngoscope | 288 | ||
| Medical Gas Supply | 288 | ||
| Anesthesia Machines | 290 | ||
| Flow Meters | 290 | ||
| Vaporizers | 291 | ||
| Breathing Circuits | 291 | ||
| Rebreathing Circuits | 291 | ||
| Nonrebreathing Circuits | 293 | ||
| Anesthetic Systems | 293 | ||
| Anesthesia | 295 | ||
| Preanesthetic Medication | 295 | ||
| Induction | 295 | ||
| Drugs for Anesthetic Induction | 295 | ||
| Endotracheal Intubation in Dogs and Cats | 295 | ||
| Maintenance of Anesthesia | 297 | ||
| Anesthetic Monitoring | 299 | ||
| Monitoring and Estimating Anesthetic Depth | 299 | ||
| Monitoring Anesthetic Depth | 299 | ||
| Estimating Anesthetic Depth | 299 | ||
| Monitoring Physiologic Conditions | 299 | ||
| Monitoring Respiratory Function | 299 | ||
| Monitoring Cardiovascular Function | 301 | ||
| Responding to Adverse Events | 301 | ||
| Surgical Assisting | 301 | ||
| Draping and Organizing the Instrument Table | 303 | ||
| Organizing the Instrument Table | 303 | ||
| Draping | 303 | ||
| Unwrapping or Opening Sterile Items | 304 | ||
| Unwrapping Sterile Linen or Paper Packs | 304 | ||
| Unwrapping Sterile Items in Paper or Plastic or Plastic Peel-Back Pouches | 304 | ||
| Recovery | 304 | ||
| Postoperative Evaluation | 305 | ||
| Body Temperature | 305 | ||
| Body Weight | 305 | ||
| Attitude | 305 | ||
| Appetite and Thirst | 305 | ||
| Urination and Defecation | 305 | ||
| Appearance of the Surgical Wound | 305 | ||
| Pain Management | 305 | ||
| Pain Relief Modalities | 306 | ||
| Analgesia | 306 | ||
| Postoperative Complications | 307 | ||
| Hemorrhage | 307 | ||
| Seroma and Hematoma | 307 | ||
| Infection | 307 | ||
| Wound Dehiscence | 307 | ||
| Suture Removal | 307 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 308 | ||
| 10 Laboratory Procedures | 309 | ||
| Outline | 309 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 309 | ||
| Key Terms | 310 | ||
| Laboratory Design | 310 | ||
| General Considerations | 310 | ||
| Sink | 310 | ||
| Storage Space | 311 | ||
| Electrical Supply | 311 | ||
| Internet Access | 311 | ||
| Safety Concerns and Supplies | 312 | ||
| Laboratory Measurements and Mathematics | 312 | ||
| Dilutions | 312 | ||
| Equipment and Instrumentation | 312 | ||
| Microscope | 312 | ||
| Use, Care, and Maintenance | 313 | ||
| Centrifuge | 314 | ||
| Refractometer | 315 | ||
| Use, Care, and Maintenance | 316 | ||
| Chemistry Analyzers | 316 | ||
| Photometry | 316 | ||
| Electrochemical Methods | 317 | ||
| Features and Benefits of Common Types of Chemistry Analyzers | 317 | ||
| Instrument Care and Maintenance | 318 | ||
| Hematology Analyzers | 318 | ||
| Types of Analyzers | 318 | ||
| Impedance Analyzers | 318 | ||
| Quantitative Buffy Coat System | 320 | ||
| Laser-Based Analyzers | 320 | ||
| Instrument Care and Maintenance | 320 | ||
| Incubators | 321 | ||
| Pipettes | 321 | ||
| Miscellaneous Equipment and Supplies | 321 | ||
| Quality Assurance | 321 | ||
| Accuracy, Precision, and Reliability | 322 | ||
| Analysis of Control Materials | 322 | ||
| Applied Quality Control | 322 | ||
| Laboratory Records | 323 | ||
| Internal Records | 323 | ||
| External Records | 323 | ||
| Hematology Examination Procedures | 323 | ||
| Sample Collection | 323 | ||
| Collection Equipment | 324 | ||
| Sample Type | 324 | ||
| Whole Blood | 324 | ||
| Plasma | 325 | ||
| Anticoagulants | 325 | ||
| Complete Blood Count | 325 | ||
| Total Plasma Protein Determination | 326 | ||
| Erythrocyte Indices | 327 | ||
| Differential Blood Film | 327 | ||
| Evaluating the Blood Film | 327 | ||
| Performing the Differential | 328 | ||
| Erythrocyte Morphology and Variations | 329 | ||
| Blood Parasites | 329 | ||
| Leukocyte Morphology | 329 | ||
| Neutrophils | 329 | ||
| Lymphocytes | 329 | ||
| Monocytes | 329 | ||
| Eosinophils | 329 | ||
| Basophils | 334 | ||
| Variations in Leukocyte Morphology | 334 | ||
| Platelets | 334 | ||
| Platelet Assessment Methods | 334 | ||
| Coagulation Testing | 334 | ||
| Hemostatic Defects | 334 | ||
| Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation | 336 | ||
| Assessment of Coagulation and Hemostasis | 336 | ||
| Platelet Counts and Estimates | 336 | ||
| Buccal Mucosal Bleeding Time | 336 | ||
| Other Coagulation Tests | 336 | ||
| Clinical Chemistry | 337 | ||
| Hepatobiliary Function Testing | 337 | ||
| Protein | 337 | ||
| Albumin | 338 | ||
| Globulin | 338 | ||
| Bilirubin | 338 | ||
| Bile Acids | 338 | ||
| Enzyme Analyses | 338 | ||
| Phosphatases | 338 | ||
| Transferases | 338 | ||
| Kidney Function Testing | 338 | ||
| Uric Acid | 339 | ||
| Pancreatic Function Testing | 339 | ||
| Amylase | 339 | ||
| Lipase | 339 | ||
| Glucose | 339 | ||
| Fructosamine | 340 | ||
| Other Serum Assays | 340 | ||
| Enzymes and Lactate | 340 | ||
| Electrolytes | 340 | ||
| Basic Principles of Immunology | 341 | ||
| Immunologic Tests | 341 | ||
| Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay | 341 | ||
| Rapid Immunomigration Assay | 341 | ||
| Agglutination Test | 342 | ||
| Other Tests | 342 | ||
| Intradermal Skin Testing | 343 | ||
| Antibody Titers | 343 | ||
| Common Errors and Artifacts | 343 | ||
| Microbiology | 343 | ||
| Characteristics of Bacteria | 343 | ||
| Mycology | 344 | ||
| Sample Collection | 344 | ||
| Sample Processing Materials | 346 | ||
| Culture Media | 346 | ||
| Stains | 347 | ||
| Procedures | 348 | ||
| Inoculating Culture Media | 348 | ||
| Inoculating Dermatophyte Test Media | 348 | ||
| Incubating Bacterial Cultures | 349 | ||
| Biochemical Test Materials | 349 | ||
| Antimicrobial Sensitivity Testing | 349 | ||
| Quality Control Concerns | 350 | ||
| Cytology | 350 | ||
| Collection and Preparation of Samples from Tissues and Masses | 350 | ||
| Impression Smears | 350 | ||
| Scrapings | 350 | ||
| Swabbings | 351 | ||
| Fine-Needle Biopsy | 351 | ||
| Preparation Techniques for Solid Samples | 351 | ||
| Compression Technique | 351 | ||
| Modified Compression Technique | 351 | ||
| Collection and Preparation of Fluid Samples | 352 | ||
| Concentration Techniques | 352 | ||
| Slide Preparation | 352 | ||
| Line Smear | 352 | ||
| Starfish Smear | 352 | ||
| Staining of Cytology Specimens | 352 | ||
| Examination of Cytology Specimens | 353 | ||
| Vaginal Cytology | 353 | ||
| Histology | 354 | ||
| Urinalysis | 355 | ||
| Sample Collection | 355 | ||
| Complete Urinalysis | 355 | ||
| Specific Gravity | 355 | ||
| Biochemical Testing | 356 | ||
| Microscopic Examination of Urine Sediment | 356 | ||
| Elements in Urinary Sediment | 356 | ||
| Cells | 356 | ||
| Erythrocytes and Leukocytes | 356 | ||
| Epithelial Cells | 356 | ||
| Casts | 357 | ||
| Crystals | 357 | ||
| Bacteria | 358 | ||
| Miscellaneous Elements | 358 | ||
| Parasitology | 358 | ||
| Classification of Parasites | 360 | ||
| Kingdom Protista, Subkingdom Protozoa | 360 | ||
| Kingdom Animalia | 361 | ||
| Phylum Platyhelminthes | 361 | ||
| Cestodes | 361 | ||
| Trematodes | 363 | ||
| Phylum Nematoda | 364 | ||
| Phylum Acanthocephela | 364 | ||
| Rickettsial Parasites | 364 | ||
| Phylum Arthropoda | 364 | ||
| Fleas | 369 | ||
| Lice | 369 | ||
| Flies | 369 | ||
| Ticks | 369 | ||
| Mites | 371 | ||
| Diagnostic Techniques | 373 | ||
| Sample Collection and Handling | 375 | ||
| Fecal Samples | 375 | ||
| Blood Samples | 376 | ||
| Miscellaneous Samples | 376 | ||
| Evaluation of Fecal Specimens | 376 | ||
| Direct Smear | 376 | ||
| Fecal Flotation | 376 | ||
| Centrifugal Flotation | 377 | ||
| Fecal Sedimentation | 377 | ||
| Cellophane Tape Preparation | 378 | ||
| Miscellaneous Fecal Examinations | 378 | ||
| Evaluation of Blood Samples | 379 | ||
| Direct Drop Test | 379 | ||
| Filter Test | 379 | ||
| Modified Knott’s Test | 379 | ||
| Immunologic Tests | 379 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 380 | ||
| 11 Diagnostic Imaging | 381 | ||
| Outline | 381 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 381 | ||
| Key Terms | 382 | ||
| X-Ray Generation | 382 | ||
| X-ray Tube Anatomy | 382 | ||
| Radiographic Image Quality | 383 | ||
| Radiographic Density | 383 | ||
| Radiographic Contrast | 383 | ||
| Radiographic Detail | 384 | ||
| Distortion | 385 | ||
| Scatter Radiation | 386 | ||
| Grids | 386 | ||
| Exposure Variables | 387 | ||
| Milliamperage and Exposure Time | 387 | ||
| Kilovoltage Peak | 387 | ||
| Source-Image Distance | 388 | ||
| Object-Image Distance | 388 | ||
| Radiographic Film | 388 | ||
| Intensifying Screens | 389 | ||
| X-Ray Equipment | 390 | ||
| Digital X-Ray Imaging | 391 | ||
| Computed Radiography | 391 | ||
| Digital Radiography | 391 | ||
| Digital Radiography Storage | 391 | ||
| Radiation Safety | 392 | ||
| Terminology | 392 | ||
| Darkroom Techniques | 393 | ||
| Darkroom Setup | 393 | ||
| Film Identification | 394 | ||
| Safelights | 395 | ||
| Film Processing | 395 | ||
| Chemistry | 395 | ||
| Developer | 395 | ||
| Fixer | 396 | ||
| Equipment | 396 | ||
| Manual Processing | 396 | ||
| Maintenance | 396 | ||
| Automatic Processing | 397 | ||
| Maintenance | 397 | ||
| Silver Recovery | 397 | ||
| Radiographic Artifacts | 397 | ||
| Radiographic Positioning and Terminology | 397 | ||
| Oblique Projections | 397 | ||
| Contrast Studies | 399 | ||
| Positive Contrast Media | 400 | ||
| Negative Contrast Media | 402 | ||
| Double-Contrast Procedure | 402 | ||
| Diagnostic Ultrasound | 402 | ||
| Transducers | 402 | ||
| Display Modes | 402 | ||
| A-Mode | 402 | ||
| B-Mode | 403 | ||
| M-mode | 403 | ||
| Terminology Describing Echotexture | 403 | ||
| Patient Preparation | 403 | ||
| Instrument Controls | 403 | ||
| Brightness and Contrast | 403 | ||
| Depth | 403 | ||
| Gain and Power | 403 | ||
| Time Gain Compensation | 404 | ||
| Artifacts | 404 | ||
| Endoscopy | 404 | ||
| Types of Endoscopes | 405 | ||
| Rigid Endoscopes | 405 | ||
| Flexible Endoscopes | 405 | ||
| Endoscopy Room | 405 | ||
| Accessory Instruments | 405 | ||
| Care of Endoscopes | 406 | ||
| Cleaning a Flexible Endoscope | 406 | ||
| Storing an Endoscope | 406 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Endoscopy | 407 | ||
| Patient Preparation | 407 | ||
| Obtaining Samples | 407 | ||
| Computed Tomography | 407 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 407 | ||
| Nuclear Medicine | 408 | ||
| Recommended Readings | 408 | ||
| 12 Avian and Exotic Animal Care and Nursing | 409 | ||
| Outline | 409 | ||
| Learning Objectives | 409 | ||
| Key Terms | 410 | ||
| Small Mammals | 410 | ||
| Housing | 410 | ||
| Nutrition | 411 | ||
| Rabbits | 411 | ||
| Ferrets | 412 | ||
| Rodents | 414 | ||
| Mice | 414 | ||
| Rats | 416 | ||
| Hamsters | 416 | ||
| Gerbils | 417 | ||
| Guinea Pigs | 417 | ||
| Chinchillas | 418 | ||
| General Nursing Care of Small Mammals | 419 | ||
| Diagnostic and Treatment Techniques | 420 | ||
| Venipuncture | 420 | ||
| Rodents | 420 | ||
| Rabbits | 420 | ||
| Ferrets | 421 | ||
| Force Feeding | 421 | ||
| Administration of Medications | 422 | ||
| Antibiotics | 422 | ||
| Vaccines | 422 | ||
| Fecal Analysis | 422 | ||
| Urinanalysis | 422 | ||
| Birds | 422 | ||
| Avian Anatomy | 423 | ||
| Integument | 423 | ||
| Musculoskeletal System | 424 | ||
| Respiratory System | 424 | ||
| Digestive System | 425 | ||
| Urinary System | 425 | ||
| Reproductive System | 427 | ||
| Circulatory System | 427 | ||
| Special Senses | 427 | ||
| Basic Pet Bird Behavior | 428 | ||
| Common Behaviors | 428 | ||
| Chewing | 428 | ||
| Biting | 429 | ||
| Dominance | 429 | ||
| Vocalization | 429 | ||
| Self-Mutilation and Feather Destructive Behavior | 429 | ||
| Inappropriate Bonding | 430 | ||
| Client Education | 430 | ||
| Housing and Husbandry | 430 | ||
| Beak, Wing, and Nail Trimming | 431 | ||
| Beak Trimming | 431 | ||
| Wing Trimming | 432 | ||
| Nail Trimming | 432 | ||
| Determination of Gender | 432 | ||
| Microchipping | 433 | ||
| Physical Examination | 433 | ||
| History | 433 | ||
| Procedure Before Capture and Restraint | 433 | ||
| Capture and Restraint | 433 | ||
| Performing the Physical Examination | 435 | ||
| Weighing the Patient | 436 | ||
| Diagnostic Sampling Techniques | 437 | ||
| Blood Collection | 437 | ||
| Fecal Examinations | 437 | ||
| Imaging | 438 | ||
| Radiography | 438 | ||
| Standing Radiograph | 438 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Contrast Study | 438 | ||
| Endoscopy | 439 | ||
| Nursing Care | 440 | ||
| Hospitalization | 440 | ||
| Infectious Disease and Zoonoses | 441 | ||
| Preventing the Spread of Disease in the Clinic | 441 | ||
| Preparedness While Providing Supportive Care | 441 | ||
| Oral Administration | 441 | ||
| Gavage Feeding | 442 | ||
| Subcutaneous Injection Sites | 442 | ||
| Intramuscular Injections | 442 | ||
| Bandaging Figure-of-Eight | 443 | ||
| Elizabethan Collar Placement | 443 | ||
| Common Diseases and Conditions | 444 | ||
| Respiratory Emergencies | 444 | ||
| Lower Airway | 444 | ||
| Space-Occupying Masses | 445 | ||
| Bleeding Emergencies | 445 | ||
| Egg Stasis or Binding | 445 | ||
| Prolapsed Cloaca | 445 | ||
| Animal Bites | 445 | ||
| Beak Injuries and Repair | 446 | ||
| Foreign Bodies | 446 | ||
| Fractures | 446 | ||
| Leg and Wing Fractures | 447 | ||
| Head Trauma | 447 | ||
| Burns | 447 | ||
| Crop Burn and Crop Trauma | 447 | ||
| Heavy Metal Toxicosis | 448 | ||
| Ingested Poisons | 448 | ||
| Poisonous Plants | 448 | ||
| Ethical Euthanasia Techniques | 449 | ||
| Reptiles and Amphibians | 449 | ||
| Reptile Biology | 449 | ||
| Husbandry | 450 | ||
| Housing | 450 | ||
| Water Quality | 451 | ||
| Feeding | 451 | ||
| Snakes | 451 | ||
| Lizards | 451 | ||
| Glossary | 461 | ||
| A | 461 | ||
| B | 463 | ||
| C | 464 | ||
| D | 466 | ||
| E | 467 | ||
| F | 468 | ||
| G | 469 | ||
| H | 470 | ||
| I | 470 | ||
| J | 471 | ||
| K | 471 | ||
| L | 472 | ||
| M | 472 | ||
| N | 473 | ||
| O | 474 | ||
| P | 475 | ||
| Q | 477 | ||
| R | 477 | ||
| S | 478 | ||
| T | 479 | ||
| U | 480 | ||
| V | 481 | ||
| W | 481 | ||
| X | 481 | ||
| Y | 481 | ||
| Z | 481 | ||
| Appendices | 483 | ||
| Appendix J Veterinary Assistant Model Curriculum Association of Veterinan Technician Educators | 487 | ||
| Appendix K Policy on Assistant Training Curriculum Approval | 488 | ||
| Introduction | 488 | ||
| Role of the Members of the Veterinary Health Care Team | 488 | ||
| Essentials Requirements for Assistant Programs | 488 | ||
| Tasks Appropriate to Delegate to the Assistant | 489 | ||
| Essential Skills for Assistant Training | 489 | ||
| NAVTA’s Evaluation Protocol for Assistant Training Programs | 491 | ||
| Assistant Program Review Summary Sheet - For Program Use | 491 | ||
| Index | 493 | ||
| A | 493 | ||
| B | 494 | ||
| C | 496 | ||
| D | 498 | ||
| E | 499 | ||
| F | 500 | ||
| G | 501 | ||
| H | 502 | ||
| I | 503 | ||
| J | 503 | ||
| K | 503 | ||
| L | 503 | ||
| M | 504 | ||
| N | 505 | ||
| O | 506 | ||
| P | 506 | ||
| Q | 508 | ||
| R | 508 | ||
| S | 509 | ||
| T | 511 | ||
| U | 512 | ||
| V | 512 | ||
| W | 513 | ||
| X | 513 | ||
| Y | 513 | ||
| Z | 513 |