Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
This is a new edition of a classic text that presents all of the information that a dental student needs to know in order to safely capture high-quality clinical images and accurately interpret their findings.
In this latest edition, both traditional methods of imaging and new modalities are included, such as cone beam CT, and the author team has been expanded to bring a fresh approach to the subject area.
Written in an accessible manner which avoids unnecessary detail, each page spread has been carefully designed to ensure clarity of understanding by the reader to ensure both exam success and confidence and safety in the clinical situation. Topics address the whole curriculum and range from the physics of imaging to radiation protection and image interpretation.
Suitable for undergraduate students and post-graduates alike, this book has become essential reading for all readers who intend to practice clinical dentistry.
- Provides a comprehensive account of the radiology and radiography topics usually examined at undergraduate and postgraduate level
- Clear and accessible approach to the subject makes learning especially easy
- More than 1100 illustrations present clinical, diagnostic and practical information in an accessible manner
- Written by a world authority on the subject area
- Contains recent classifications and advanced imaging modalities including cone beam CT imaging techniques
- Includes a new chapter on cone beam technology which includes the latest RCS (Eng) Guidelines for patient selection
- Contains an on-line self-assessment bank to aid exam preparation
- Chapter on legislation now on-line to ensure constant currency of information
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Half title page | i | ||
| Dedication | ii | ||
| Essentials of Dental Radiography and Radiology | iii | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Table of Contents | v | ||
| Preface | vii | ||
| Acknowledgements | viii | ||
| List of colour plates | ix | ||
| Additional online material | x | ||
| 1 Introduction | 1 | ||
| 1 The radiographic image | 3 | ||
| Introduction | 3 | ||
| Nature of the radiographic image | 3 | ||
| The radiographic shadows | 3 | ||
| The three-dimensional anatomical tissues | 5 | ||
| The limitations imposed by a two-dimensional image and superimposition | 7 | ||
| Appreciating the overall shape | 7 | ||
| Superimposition and assessing the location and shape of structures within an object | 7 | ||
| Quality of the radiographic image | 9 | ||
| Positioning of the image receptor, object and X-ray beam | 9 | ||
| X-ray beam characteristics | 10 | ||
| Perception of the radiographic image | 11 | ||
| Effect of partial images | 11 | ||
| Effect of contrast | 11 | ||
| Effect of context | 12 | ||
| Common types of dental radiographs | 12 | ||
| 2 Radiation physics, equipment and radiation protection | 13 | ||
| 2 The production, properties and interactions of X-rays | 15 | ||
| Introduction | 15 | ||
| Atomic structure | 15 | ||
| Useful definitions | 16 | ||
| Main features of the atomic particles | 16 | ||
| Nuclear particles (nucleons) | 16 | ||
| Protons | 16 | ||
| Neutrons | 16 | ||
| Electrons | 16 | ||
| Summary of important points on atomic structure | 16 | ||
| X-ray production | 16 | ||
| Main features and requirements of an X-ray tube | 18 | ||
| Practical considerations | 18 | ||
| Interactions at the atomic level | 18 | ||
| Heat-producing collisions | 18 | ||
| Important points to note | 19 | ||
| X-ray-producing collisions | 19 | ||
| X-ray spectra | 20 | ||
| Continuous spectrum | 20 | ||
| Summary of important points | 20 | ||
| Characteristic spectrum | 20 | ||
| Summary of important points | 21 | ||
| Combined spectra | 21 | ||
| Summary of the main properties and characteristics of X-rays | 21 | ||
| Interaction of X-rays with matter | 22 | ||
| Definition of terms used in X-ray interactions | 22 | ||
| Interaction of X-rays at the atomic level | 22 | ||
| Photoelectric effect | 22 | ||
| Summary of the stages in the photoelectric effect | 22 | ||
| Important points to note | 22 | ||
| Compton effect | 23 | ||
| Summary of the stages in the Compton effect | 24 | ||
| Important points to note | 24 | ||
| 3 Dental X-ray generating equipment | 25 | ||
| Ideal requirements | 26 | ||
| Main components of the tubehead | 26 | ||
| Focal spot size and the principle of line focus | 27 | ||
| Main components of the control panel | 27 | ||
| Circuitry and tube voltage | 29 | ||
| Other X-ray generating apparatus | 30 | ||
| 4 Image receptors | 31 | ||
| Radiographic film | 31 | ||
| Direct-action (non-screen) film | 31 | ||
| Uses | 31 | ||
| Sizes | 31 | ||
| The film packet contents | 31 | ||
| The radiographic film | 32 | ||
| Film orientation | 32 | ||
| Indirect-action film | 32 | ||
| Uses | 32 | ||
| Indirect-action film construction | 33 | ||
| Characteristics of radiographic film | 33 | ||
| Optical density (OD) | 33 | ||
| Characteristic curve | 33 | ||
| Background fog density | 34 | ||
| Film speed | 34 | ||
| Film sensitivity | 34 | ||
| Film latitude | 34 | ||
| Film contrast | 34 | ||
| Film gamma and average gradient | 35 | ||
| Resolution | 35 | ||
| Intensifying screens | 35 | ||
| Action | 35 | ||
| Useful definitions | 36 | ||
| Fluorescent materials | 36 | ||
| Rare earth and related screens | 36 | ||
| Calcium tungstate screens | 37 | ||
| Cassettes | 37 | ||
| Types | 37 | ||
| Construction | 38 | ||
| Important practical points to note | 38 | ||
| Film storage | 38 | ||
| Screen maintenance | 38 | ||
| Digital receptors | 38 | ||
| Uses | 38 | ||
| Solid-state sensors | 39 | ||
| Intraoral sensors | 39 | ||
| Construction and design | 40 | ||
| CCD (charge-coupled device) | 40 | ||
| CMOS (complementary metal oxide detectors) | 40 | ||
| Extraoral sensors | 41 | ||
| Photostimulable phosphor storage plates | 42 | ||
| Plate construction and design | 42 | ||
| 5 Image processing | 45 | ||
| Chemical processing | 45 | ||
| Theory | 45 | ||
| Stage 1: Development | 45 | ||
| Stage 2: Washing | 46 | ||
| Stage 3: Fixation | 46 | ||
| Stage 4: Washing | 46 | ||
| Stage 5: Drying | 46 | ||
| Practical methods | 46 | ||
| Manual processing | 46 | ||
| Manual processing cycle | 46 | ||
| Processing solutions | 47 | ||
| Important points to note regarding development | 47 | ||
| Important points to note regarding fixing | 47 | ||
| Automatic processing | 47 | ||
| Automatic processing cycle | 48 | ||
| 3 Radiography | 77 | ||
| 8 Dental radiography – general patient considerations including control of infection | 79 | ||
| General guidelines on patient care | 79 | ||
| Specific requirements when X-raying children and patients with disabilities | 80 | ||
| Control of infection | 81 | ||
| Main infections of concern | 81 | ||
| Important point to note | 81 | ||
| Infection control measures | 81 | ||
| Important points to note | 83 | ||
| Footnote | 83 | ||
| 9 Periapical radiography | 85 | ||
| Main indications | 85 | ||
| Ideal positioning requirements | 85 | ||
| Radiographic techniques | 85 | ||
| Paralleling technique | 86 | ||
| Theory | 86 | ||
| Film packet/sensor holders | 86 | ||
| Positioning techniques | 90 | ||
| Positioning using solid-state digital sensors | 90 | ||
| Bisected angle technique | 100 | ||
| Theory | 100 | ||
| Vertical angulation of the X-ray tubehead | 100 | ||
| Horizontal angulation of the X-ray tubehead | 100 | ||
| Positioning techniques | 101 | ||
| Using film packet/digital sensor holders | 101 | ||
| Using the patient’s finger | 102 | ||
| Positioning using film packets and digital phosphor plates | 103 | ||
| Comparison of the paralleling and bisected angle techniques | 107 | ||
| Advantages of the paralleling technique | 107 | ||
| Disadvantages of the paralleling technique | 107 | ||
| Advantages of the bisected angle technique | 107 | ||
| Disadvantages of the bisected angle technique | 107 | ||
| Conclusion | 109 | ||
| Positioning difficulties often encountered in periapical radiography | 109 | ||
| Problems posed by mandibular third molars | 109 | ||
| Possible solutions | 110 | ||
| Problems of gagging | 111 | ||
| Possible solutions | 111 | ||
| Problems encountered during endodontics | 112 | ||
| Possible solutions | 112 | ||
| Problems of the edentulous ridge | 114 | ||
| Possible solutions | 114 | ||
| Problems encountered in children | 114 | ||
| Assessment of image quality | 115 | ||
| Ideal quality criteria | 115 | ||
| Subjective rating of image quality | 116 | ||
| Assessment of rejected films and determination of errors | 116 | ||
| Patient preparation and positioning (radiographic technique) errors (Fig. 9.44) | 116 | ||
| 10 Bitewing radiography | 119 | ||
| Main indications | 119 | ||
| Ideal technique requirements | 119 | ||
| Positioning techniques | 121 | ||
| Using image receptor holders with beam-aiming devices | 121 | ||
| Advantages | 123 | ||
| Disadvantages | 123 | ||
| Using a tab attached to the image receptor | 123 | ||
| Advantages | 124 | ||
| Disadvantages | 124 | ||
| Resultant radiographs | 124 | ||
| Assessment of image quality | 126 | ||
| Ideal quality criteria | 126 | ||
| Subjective rating of image quality | 126 | ||
| Assessment of rejected films and determination of errors | 126 | ||
| Patient preparation and positioning (radiographic technique) errors (Fig. 10.13) | 126 | ||
| 11 Occlusal radiography | 129 | ||
| Terminology and classification | 129 | ||
| Maxillary occlusal projections | 129 | ||
| Mandibular occlusal projections | 129 | ||
| Upper standard (or anterior) occlusal | 129 | ||
| Main clinical indications | 129 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 129 | ||
| Upper oblique occlusal | 131 | ||
| Main clinical indications | 131 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 131 | ||
| Lower 90° occlusal | 132 | ||
| Main clinical indications | 132 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 132 | ||
| Lower 45° (or anterior) occlusal | 133 | ||
| Main clinical indications | 133 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 133 | ||
| Lower oblique occlusal | 134 | ||
| Main clinical indications | 134 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 134 | ||
| 12 Oblique lateral radiography | 135 | ||
| Introduction | 135 | ||
| Terminology | 135 | ||
| True lateral positioning | 136 | ||
| Oblique lateral positioning | 136 | ||
| Main indications | 136 | ||
| Equipment required | 136 | ||
| Basic technique principles | 136 | ||
| Cassette position | 136 | ||
| Patient’s head position | 137 | ||
| X-ray tubehead position | 137 | ||
| Positioning examples for various oblique lateral radiographs | 138 | ||
| Important points to note | 138 | ||
| Bimolar technique | 140 | ||
| 13 Skull and maxillofacial radiography | 143 | ||
| Equipment, patient positioning and projections | 143 | ||
| Standard occipitomental (0° OM) | 144 | ||
| Main indications | 144 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 144 | ||
| 30° occipitomental (30° OM) | 146 | ||
| Main indications | 146 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 146 | ||
| Posteroanterior of the skull (PA skull) | 148 | ||
| Main indications | 148 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 148 | ||
| Posteroanterior of the jaws (PA jaws/PA mandible) | 150 | ||
| Main indications | 150 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 150 | ||
| Reverse Towne’s | 152 | ||
| Main indications | 152 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 152 | ||
| Rotated posteroanterior (rotated PA) | 154 | ||
| Main indications | 154 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 154 | ||
| True lateral skull | 156 | ||
| Main indications | 156 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 156 | ||
| Submentovertex (SMV) | 158 | ||
| Main indications | 158 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 158 | ||
| 14 Cephalometric radiography | 161 | ||
| Main indications | 161 | ||
| Orthodontics | 161 | ||
| Orthognathic surgery | 161 | ||
| Equipment | 161 | ||
| Traditional film-based equipment | 162 | ||
| Digital equipment | 164 | ||
| Using phosphor plates | 164 | ||
| Using solid-state sensors | 164 | ||
| Main radiographic projections | 165 | ||
| True cephalometric lateral skull | 165 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 165 | ||
| Cephalometric tracing/digitizing | 166 | ||
| Main cephalometric points | 166 | ||
| Main cephalometric planes and angles | 167 | ||
| Cephalometric posteroanterior of the jaws (PA jaws) | 168 | ||
| Technique and positioning (Fig. 14.9) | 168 | ||
| 15 Tomography and panoramic radiography | 171 | ||
| Introduction | 171 | ||
| Tomographic theory | 172 | ||
| Principle of tomographic movement | 172 | ||
| Broad-beam linear tomography | 173 | ||
| Slit or narrow-beam linear tomography | 173 | ||
| Narrow-beam rotational tomography | 174 | ||
| Important points to note | 174 | ||
| Panoramic tomography | 174 | ||
| Selection criteria | 176 | ||
| Equipment | 176 | ||
| Control panel | 176 | ||
| Equipment movement | 176 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 180 | ||
| Patient preparation | 180 | ||
| Equipment preparation | 180 | ||
| Patient positioning | 180 | ||
| Important points to note | 180 | ||
| After exposure | 180 | ||
| The importance of accurate patient positioning | 180 | ||
| Technique variations | 181 | ||
| Normal anatomy | 182 | ||
| Real or actual shadows (see Fig. 15.20 and 15.21) | 183 | ||
| Ghost or artefactual shadows (see Fig. 15.22) | 183 | ||
| Advantages and disadvantages | 184 | ||
| Advantages | 184 | ||
| Disadvantages | 184 | ||
| Assessment of image quality | 186 | ||
| Ideal quality criteria | 186 | ||
| Subjective rating of image quality | 187 | ||
| Assessment of rejected films and determination of errors | 187 | ||
| Patient preparation errors (Fig. 15.27) | 187 | ||
| Patient positioning errors (Figs 15.28 and 15.29) | 187 | ||
| Equipment positioning errors (Fig. 15.30) | 187 | ||
| Footnote | 187 | ||
| 16 Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) | 193 | ||
| Main indications | 193 | ||
| The developing dentition | 193 | ||
| Restoring the dentition | 193 | ||
| Surgical applications | 194 | ||
| Equipment and theory | 194 | ||
| Stage 1 – Data acquisition | 195 | ||
| Stage 2 – Primary reconstruction | 195 | ||
| Stage 3 – Secondary or multiplanar reconstruction | 195 | ||
| Technique and positioning | 198 | ||
| Patient preparation | 198 | ||
| Equipment preparation | 199 | ||
| Patient positioning | 199 | ||
| Normal anatomy (Figs 16.8–16.12) | 201 | ||
| Radiation dose | 206 | ||
| Advantages and disadvantages | 206 | ||
| Advantages | 206 | ||
| Disadvantages | 206 | ||
| Assessment of image quality | 207 | ||
| Footnote | 207 | ||
| 17 The quality of radiographic images and quality assurance | 209 | ||
| Introduction | 209 | ||
| Film-based image quality | 209 | ||
| Contrast | 209 | ||
| Subject contrast | 209 | ||
| Film contrast | 210 | ||
| Fog and scatter | 210 | ||
| Image geometry | 210 | ||
| Characteristics of the X-ray beam | 210 | ||
| Image sharpness and resolution | 210 | ||
| Practical factors influencing film-based image quality | 210 | ||
| Typical film faults | 211 | ||
| Film too dark (Figs 17.1 and 17.2) | 211 | ||
| 4 Radiology | 247 | ||
| 19 Introduction to radiological interpretation | 249 | ||
| Essential requirements for interpretation | 249 | ||
| Optimum viewing conditions | 249 | ||
| The nature and limitations of different radiographic images | 250 | ||
| Critical assessment of image quality | 251 | ||
| Film-captured images | 251 | ||
| Radiographic Technique (see Fig. 19.3) | 251 | ||
| Exposure factors and film density (see Fig. 19.4) | 251 | ||
| Processing | 251 | ||
| Digitally captured images | 252 | ||
| Radiographic Technique | 252 | ||
| Image processing | 252 | ||
| Detailed knowledge of normal anatomy | 252 | ||
| Detailed knowledge of pathological conditions | 253 | ||
| Systematic approach | 253 | ||
| The entire radiograph | 253 | ||
| Specific lesions | 253 | ||
| Comparison with previous images | 254 | ||
| Conclusion | 254 | ||
| 20 Dental caries and the assessment of restorations | 255 | ||
| Introduction | 255 | ||
| Classification of caries | 255 | ||
| Levels of disease | 255 | ||
| Diagnosis and detection of caries | 256 | ||
| Occlusal caries | 256 | ||
| Approximal caries | 256 | ||
| Secondary or recurrent caries (caries developing adjacent to a restoration) | 256 | ||
| Radiographic detection of lesions of caries | 256 | ||
| Radiographic assessment of caries activity | 257 | ||
| Radiographic appearance of caries lesions | 257 | ||
| Other important radiographic appearances | 260 | ||
| Residual caries | 260 | ||
| Radiodensity of adhesive restorations | 260 | ||
| Cervical burn-out or cervical translucency | 260 | ||
| Important points to note | 262 | ||
| Dentinal changes beneath amalgam restorations | 262 | ||
| Limitations of radiographic detection of caries | 262 | ||
| Radiographic assessment of restorations | 265 | ||
| Critical assessment of the restoration | 265 | ||
| Assessment of the underlying tooth | 265 | ||
| Limitations of the radiographic image | 266 | ||
| Suggested guidelines for interpreting bitewing images | 267 | ||
| Overall critical assessment | 267 | ||
| Technique (film or digitally-captured images) | 267 | ||
| Exposure factors (film-captured images) | 267 | ||
| Processing (film-captured images) | 267 | ||
| Image processing (digitally-captured images) | 267 | ||
| Systematic viewing | 267 | ||
| 21 The periapical tissues | 269 | ||
| Introduction | 269 | ||
| Normal radiographic appearances | 269 | ||
| The periapical tissues of permanent teeth (Fig. 21.2) | 270 | ||
| Important points to note | 270 | ||
| The periapical tissues of deciduous teeth (Fig. 21.3) | 270 | ||
| The periapical tissues of developing teeth (Fig. 21.4) | 272 | ||
| The effects of normal superimposed shadows | 272 | ||
| Radiolucent shadows | 272 | ||
| Important points to note | 272 | ||
| Radiopaque shadows | 272 | ||
| Radiographic appearances of periapical inflammatory changes | 274 | ||
| Types of inflammatory changes | 274 | ||
| Cardinal signs of acute inflammation | 274 | ||
| Hallmarks of chronic inflammation | 274 | ||
| Treatment and radiographic follow-up | 277 | ||
| Other important causes of periapical radiolucency | 279 | ||
| Suggested guidelines for interpreting periapical images | 279 | ||
| Overall critical assessment | 279 | ||
| Technique (film or digitally-captured images) | 279 | ||
| Exposure factors (film-captured images) | 280 | ||
| Processing (film-captured images) | 280 | ||
| Image processing (digitally-captured images) | 280 | ||
| Systematic viewing | 280 | ||
| 22 The periodontal tissues and periodontal disease | 281 | ||
| Introduction | 281 | ||
| Selection criteria | 281 | ||
| Bibliography and suggested reading | 461 | ||
| Part 1 | 461 | ||
| Part 2 | 461 | ||
| Part 3 | 462 | ||
| Part 4 | 463 | ||
| Index | 465 | ||
| A | 465 | ||
| B | 466 | ||
| C | 466 | ||
| D | 468 | ||
| E | 468 | ||
| F | 469 | ||
| G | 470 | ||
| H | 470 | ||
| I | 470 | ||
| J | 471 | ||
| K | 471 | ||
| L | 471 | ||
| M | 471 | ||
| N | 472 | ||
| O | 472 | ||
| P | 473 | ||
| Q | 474 | ||
| R | 474 | ||
| S | 475 | ||
| T | 477 | ||
| U | 478 | ||
| V | 478 | ||
| W | 478 | ||
| X | 478 | ||
| Y | 478 | ||
| Z | 478 | ||
| Color plate | CP1 |