BOOK
Llama and Alpaca Care - E-Book
Chris Cebra | David E. Anderson | Ahmed Tibary | Robert J. Van Saun | LaRue Willard Johnson
(2014)
Additional Information
Book Details
Abstract
Designed for the mixed practice large animal veterinarian, veterinary students, and camelid caretakers alike, Llama and Alpaca Care covers all major body systems, herd health, physical examination, nutrition, reproduction, surgery, anesthesia, and multisystem diseases of llamas and alpacas. Written by world-renowned camelid specialists and experts in the field, this comprehensive and uniquely global text offers quick access to the most current knowledge in this area. With coverage ranging from basic maintenance such as restraint and handling to more complex topics including anesthesia and surgery, this text provides the full range of knowledge required for the management of llamas and alpacas.
"..an essential text for anyone working with South American camelids." Reviewed by Claire E. Whitehead on behalf of Veterinary Record, July 2015
- Over 500 full-color images provide detailed, highly illustrated coverage of all major body systems, physical examination, nutrition, anesthesia, fluid therapy, multisystem diseases, and surgical disorders.
- World-renowned camelid experts and specialists in the field each bring a specific area of expertise for a uniquely global text.
- Comprehensive herd health content includes handling techniques, vaccinations, biosecurity, and protecting the herd from predators.
- Coverage of anesthesia and analgesia includes the latest information on pharmacokinetics of anesthetic drugs, chemical restraint, injectable and inhalation anesthesia, neuroanesthesia, and pain management.
- Reproduction section contains information on breeding management, lactation, infertility, and embryo transfer.
- Nutrition information offers detailed nutritional requirements and discusses feeding management systems and feeding behavior.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front Cover | cover | ||
| Endsheet 4 | IFC1 | ||
| Llama and Alpaca Care | i | ||
| Copyright Page | ii | ||
| Dedication | iii | ||
| Preface | iv | ||
| Why Is This Book Important? | iv | ||
| Organization | iv | ||
| Acknowledgments | iv | ||
| Contributors | vi | ||
| Table Of Contents | x | ||
| 1 Herd Health | 1 | ||
| 1 Biosecurity | 1 | ||
| General Principles | 1 | ||
| External Biosecurity | 1 | ||
| Biocontainment | 2 | ||
| Host Animal Risk Factors | 2 | ||
| Infectious Agent Risk Factors | 3 | ||
| Environmental Risk Factors | 4 | ||
| General Cleaning and Disinfection | 4 | ||
| References | 5 | ||
| 2 Protection of Camelids from Predators | 5 | ||
| Domestic Dogs | 6 | ||
| Coyotes | 6 | ||
| Mountain Lions | 6 | ||
| Lesser Predators | 6 | ||
| Regulatory Impacts | 6 | ||
| Protective Principles | 7 | ||
| Guardian Dogs | 7 | ||
| Donkeys | 7 | ||
| Llamas | 7 | ||
| Exclusion | 8 | ||
| Fencing | 8 | ||
| Night Penning | 8 | ||
| Startle Schemes | 8 | ||
| Other Methods | 8 | ||
| Supplemental References | 8 | ||
| 3 Camelid Vaccinations | 9 | ||
| Bacterial Diseases | 9 | ||
| Clostridial Complex | 9 | ||
| Seven-and Eight-Way Clostridial Vaccines | 9 | ||
| Anthrax | 9 | ||
| Leptospirosis | 9 | ||
| Viral Diseases | 9 | ||
| Rabies | 9 | ||
| West Nile Virus | 10 | ||
| Eastern Equine Encephalitis | 10 | ||
| Equine Rhinopneumonitis | 10 | ||
| Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus | 10 | ||
| Rotaviruses or Coronaviruses | 10 | ||
| References | 10 | ||
| 4 Camelid Herd Health and Nutrition | 11 | ||
| Purpose of Animals | 11 | ||
| Size and Makeup of the Herd | 11 | ||
| Natural Feeding Options | 11 | ||
| Geographic Influences | 11 | ||
| Facility Design for Feeding | 11 | ||
| Feed Procurement and Storage | 12 | ||
| Economic Considerations | 12 | ||
| Conclusion | 12 | ||
| 5 Endoparasite Control | 12 | ||
| Anthelmintic Options | 13 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Nematode Control Options | 15 | ||
| References | 16 | ||
| 6 Anthelmintic Resistance in Camelid Parasites | 16 | ||
| Definition of Anthelmintic Resistance | 16 | ||
| Multianthelmintic-Resistant Parasites | 17 | ||
| Making the Case for Selective Anthelmintic Treatment | 17 | ||
| Assessing Anthelmintic Efficacy | 18 | ||
| Anthelmintic Use for Control of Haemonchus contortus | 20 | ||
| Ways to Prevent Resistance | 20 | ||
| Biosecurity | 21 | ||
| References | 21 | ||
| 7 Camelid Management, Handling Techniques and Facilities, and Herd Management | 22 | ||
| Herd Management | 22 | ||
| Containment versus Restraint | 22 | ||
| Chuting the Camelid | 23 | ||
| The Mini-Catch Pen | 24 | ||
| The Neck Wrap: Putting It on and Taking It off | 24 | ||
| Trimming Toenails or Teaching the Camelid NOT to Pick up Its Feet | 25 | ||
| Picking up a Front Leg | 29 | ||
| Medical Herd Management | 30 | ||
| The Medical Team | 30 | ||
| Injections: A New Way | 31 | ||
| Get Organized | 31 | ||
| Ideal Sites for No-Restraint Injections | 32 | ||
| Subcutaneous Injections | 32 | ||
| Intramuscular Injections | 33 | ||
| Some Suggestions for Giving Injections | 33 | ||
| Alternative Injection Strategies | 34 | ||
| Injections for Crias and Weanlings | 34 | ||
| Drawing Blood | 34 | ||
| Rectal Examinations and Ultrasonography | 36 | ||
| Working the Tail | 36 | ||
| String of Pearls. | 36 | ||
| Transabdominal Ultrasonography Examinations | 36 | ||
| Physical Examinations | 37 | ||
| Head Treatments and Giving Oral Medication | 37 | ||
| Oral Medication | 37 | ||
| Eye Medication | 38 | ||
| Dental Application | 38 | ||
| Fighting Teeth. | 38 | ||
| Trimming Incisors. | 38 | ||
| Microchipping. | 38 | ||
| Emergencies | 39 | ||
| Animals Getting Cast, Tangled, or Stuck | 39 | ||
| Animals Getting Loose | 39 | ||
| Serious Fight between Males | 39 | ||
| TTouch the Ears | 39 | ||
| Chemical Help | 39 | ||
| Final Thoughts on Medical Management | 40 | ||
| Halter Fit | 40 | ||
| The Problem | 40 | ||
| Halters That Are Scary | 41 | ||
| Why Halters Are Uncomfortable | 41 | ||
| Fitting a Halter: A Step-by-Step Process | 42 | ||
| Panels Work! | 42 | ||
| The Perfect Panel | 43 | ||
| The Catch Pen | 43 | ||
| Handling Facilities | 44 | ||
| Teaching Llamas and Alpacas to Lead | 44 | ||
| Special Situations | 45 | ||
| Understanding Male Camelid Behavior | 46 | ||
| It Is Not Always About Dominance | 46 | ||
| Pen Size and Composition | 47 | ||
| Why Can’t We All Just Get Along? | 47 | ||
| If I Could Talk Like the Animals | 47 | ||
| Berserk Male Syndrome or Novice Handler Syndrome? | 48 | ||
| Aggression: More Questions Than Answers | 48 | ||
| Novice Handler Syndrome. | 48 | ||
| How It Starts: Nancy Novice. | 49 | ||
| What Now? | 49 | ||
| Insist on Respectful Behavior. | 50 | ||
| Avoid the Dangers of Overcompensation. | 50 | ||
| Dangerously Aggressive Animals | 50 | ||
| Supplemental Readings | 50 | ||
| 2 Nutrition | 51 | ||
| 8 Applied Digestive Anatomy and Feeding Behavior | 51 | ||
| Applied Anatomy and Function | 51 | ||
| Forestomach Anatomy | 51 | ||
| Fermentation and Forestomach Microbes | 51 | ||
| Consumption, Digestibility, and Feeding Behavior | 51 | ||
| Food Retention Time | 51 | ||
| Consumption | 52 | ||
| Digestibility | 53 | ||
| Feed Selectivity | 53 | ||
| Diet Composition | 53 | ||
| Implications of Camelid Nutritional Adaptations | 54 | ||
| Microbial Fermentation | 54 | ||
| Metabolic Adaptations | 55 | ||
| Dry Matter Intake | 55 | ||
| References | 57 | ||
| 9 Nutritional Requirements | 59 | ||
| Water | 59 | ||
| Water Requirements | 60 | ||
| Water Quality Assessment | 62 | ||
| Energy | 64 | ||
| Energy Partitioning | 64 | ||
| Dietary Energy Sources | 65 | ||
| Carbohydrates | 65 | ||
| Fats | 66 | ||
| Protein | 66 | ||
| Requirement Models | 66 | ||
| Maintenance and Activity | 66 | ||
| Growth | 68 | ||
| Pregnancy | 68 | ||
| Lactation | 68 | ||
| Fiber | 69 | ||
| Protein | 69 | ||
| Protein Systems and Terminology | 70 | ||
| Requirement Models | 70 | ||
| Maintenance | 70 | ||
| Growth | 71 | ||
| Pregnancy | 71 | ||
| Lactation | 71 | ||
| Fiber | 71 | ||
| Minerals | 71 | ||
| Requirement Modeling | 72 | ||
| Macromineral Requirements | 72 | ||
| Calcium and Phosphorus | 72 | ||
| Magnesium | 73 | ||
| Potassium | 74 | ||
| Sodium and Chloride | 74 | ||
| Sulfur | 74 | ||
| Micromineral Requirements | 74 | ||
| Cobalt | 74 | ||
| Copper | 74 | ||
| Iodine | 75 | ||
| Iron | 75 | ||
| Manganese | 75 | ||
| Selenium | 76 | ||
| Zinc | 76 | ||
| Mineral Sources and Feeding | 76 | ||
| Vitamins | 77 | ||
| Water-Soluble Vitamins | 77 | ||
| Fat-Soluble Vitamins | 77 | ||
| Requirement Models | 77 | ||
| Vitamin A | 77 | ||
| Vitamin D | 78 | ||
| Vitamin E | 78 | ||
| Modifiers of Nutrient Requirements | 78 | ||
| References | 78 | ||
| 10 Feeds for Camelids | 80 | ||
| Forages and Browse | 80 | ||
| Grasses | 80 | ||
| Legumes | 86 | ||
| Forbs and Browse | 86 | ||
| Sedges and Rushes | 86 | ||
| Supplements and Additives | 87 | ||
| Supplement Ingredients | 88 | ||
| Energy Concentrates | 88 | ||
| Protein Ingredients | 88 | ||
| Mineral and Vitamin Ingredients | 88 | ||
| Additive Ingredients | 88 | ||
| Commercial Supplements | 89 | ||
| Concentrate Products | 89 | ||
| Mineral and Vitamin Supplements | 90 | ||
| References | 90 | ||
| 11 Feeding Management Systems | 91 | ||
| Agroecosystems for South American Camelid Production | 91 | ||
| Population, Geographic Area of Breeding, and Farming Systems | 91 | ||
| Characteristics of Breeding | 91 | ||
| Climate | 92 | ||
| Nutritional Critical Periods: Availability and Nutritional Quality | 92 | ||
| Feeding Strategies | 93 | ||
| Feeding Management in Intensive Systems | 93 | ||
| Feeding Programs | 95 | ||
| Feeding the Maintenance Animal | 95 | ||
| Feeding the Pregnant Female | 96 | ||
| Feeding the Lactating Female | 97 | ||
| Feeding the Growing Cria | 97 | ||
| Colostrum Feeding. | 97 | ||
| Milk Feeding and Transition. | 97 | ||
| Postweaning. | 98 | ||
| Feeding Geriatric Animals | 99 | ||
| References | 99 | ||
| 12 Nutritional Assessment | 100 | ||
| Nutrient Composition Analysis | 100 | ||
| Feed Sampling Procedures | 100 | ||
| Analytical Procedures | 102 | ||
| Dry Matter | 103 | ||
| Crude Protein | 103 | ||
| Unavailable Protein. | 104 | ||
| Soluble Protein. | 104 | ||
| Degradable Protein. | 104 | ||
| Fiber | 104 | ||
| Energy | 105 | ||
| Nonfiber Carbohydrate Fractions | 105 | ||
| Ether Extract | 106 | ||
| Minerals | 106 | ||
| Dietary and Feeding Management Assessment | 106 | ||
| Dietary Evaluation | 107 | ||
| Feeding System Evaluation | 107 | ||
| Supplement Evaluation | 109 | ||
| Feed Tag Information | 109 | ||
| Nutrient Composition Adequacy | 111 | ||
| Animal Evaluations | 112 | ||
| Body Condition Score | 112 | ||
| Blood Metabolite Analysis | 112 | ||
| Metabolic Indicators | 113 | ||
| Other Analytes | 113 | ||
| Mineral and Vitamin Status Assessment | 114 | ||
| Macrominerals | 115 | ||
| Trace Minerals | 115 | ||
| Fat-Soluble Vitamins | 117 | ||
| Vitamin A. | 118 | ||
| Vitamin D. | 119 | ||
| Vitamin E. | 120 | ||
| Water-Soluble Vitamins | 121 | ||
| Growth Curve Analysis | 121 | ||
| References | 122 | ||
| 13 Nutritional Diseases | 124 | ||
| Macronutrient Diseases | 124 | ||
| Protein Energy Malnutrition | 124 | ||
| Epidemiology | 124 | ||
| Clinical Findings | 124 | ||
| Diagnosis and Treatment | 124 | ||
| Prevention | 125 | ||
| Obesity | 125 | ||
| Epidemiology | 125 | ||
| Diagnosis | 126 | ||
| Treatment and Prevention | 126 | ||
| Protein Excess | 126 | ||
| Epidemiology | 126 | ||
| Clinical Presentation | 126 | ||
| Diagnosis and Treatment | 126 | ||
| 3 Reproduction | 140 | ||
| 14 Anatomy and Physiology of Reproduction in the Female Llama and Alpaca | 140 | ||
| Female Reproductive Anatomy | 140 | ||
| Female Reproductive Physiology | 141 | ||
| Puberty | 141 | ||
| Seasonality | 142 | ||
| Ovarian Activity | 142 | ||
| Copulation and Mating Behavior | 143 | ||
| Ovulation | 144 | ||
| Corpus Luteum Formation and Function | 145 | ||
| Luteolysis | 145 | ||
| Maternal Recognition of Pregnancy | 147 | ||
| Gestation | 147 | ||
| Early Embryo Development | 147 | ||
| Endocrinology of Gestation | 147 | ||
| Placenta | 147 | ||
| Parturition | 148 | ||
| Early Postpartum Period | 149 | ||
| References | 149 | ||
| 15 Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology in the Male | 150 | ||
| Anatomy of the Male Reproductive Organs | 150 | ||
| Growth of the Testicle | 151 | ||
| Puberty | 151 | ||
| Endocrine Function of the Testicle | 152 | ||
| Detachment of the Penis–Prepuce Adhesion | 152 | ||
| Mating Behavior and Copulation | 153 | ||
| Site of Ejaculation | 155 | ||
| Sperm Transport within the Female’s Reproductive Tract | 155 | ||
| Sperm Production and Semen Characteristics | 155 | ||
| Factors Affecting Semen Characteristics | 156 | ||
| Effect of Duration of Copulation | 156 | ||
| Effect of Successive Ejaculations | 156 | ||
| Individual Male Effect | 156 | ||
| Effect of Age | 157 | ||
| Effect of Season | 157 | ||
| Semen Biochemistry and Enzymatic Liquefaction | 159 | ||
| Sperm Reserves and Effect of Semen Quality on Fertility | 160 | ||
| References | 160 | ||
| 16 Breeding Management | 162 | ||
| Male Selection and Breeding Management | 162 | ||
| Testing of Female Behavior | 162 | ||
| Breeding Systems | 164 | ||
| In-Hand Mating | 164 | ||
| Pen Mating | 166 | ||
| Paddock or Pasture Mating | 166 | ||
| Multiple-Sire Mating | 166 | ||
| Pregnancy Diagnosis | 166 | ||
| Postpartum Breeding | 167 | ||
| References | 167 | ||
| 17 Clinical Examination of the Female Reproductive Function | 168 | ||
| History | 168 | ||
| Age | 168 | ||
| Type of Management | 168 | ||
| Evaluation of Breeding Records | 169 | ||
| Evaluation of Sexual Behavior | 169 | ||
| Examination of the Vulva and Perineum | 169 | ||
| Examination of the Udder | 170 | ||
| Transrectal Palpation of the Nonpregnant Female | 171 | ||
| Transrectal Ultrasonography of the Genital Tract | 172 | ||
| Examination Technique | 173 | ||
| Evaluation of the Vestibular Sphincter, Bladder, and Vagina | 173 | ||
| Evaluation of the Cervix | 174 | ||
| Evaluation of the Uterus | 174 | ||
| Evaluation of Ovaries | 176 | ||
| Vaginal Examination | 179 | ||
| Uterine Culture | 180 | ||
| Uterine Cytology | 180 | ||
| Uterine Biopsy | 181 | ||
| Hysteroscopy | 183 | ||
| Laparoscopy | 185 | ||
| Radiography | 185 | ||
| Hormonal Evaluation of Reproductive Function in the Female | 186 | ||
| Ancillary Diagnostics | 187 | ||
| Cytogenetics | 187 | ||
| Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Stimulation Test | 187 | ||
| Evaluation of Trace Minerals and Vitamins | 187 | ||
| References | 187 | ||
| 18 Breeding Soundness Examination of the Llama and Alpaca | 188 | ||
| Physical Examination | 188 | ||
| Examination of External Genitalia | 188 | ||
| Scrotum | 188 | ||
| Testes | 188 | ||
| Penis and Prepuce | 189 | ||
| Examination of Internal Genitalia | 190 | ||
| Semen Collection and Evaluation | 191 | ||
| Behavior | 191 | ||
| Semen Collection after Mating | 191 | ||
| Artificial Vagina | 191 | ||
| Electroejaculation | 191 | ||
| Semen Parameters | 191 | ||
| Other Ancillary Tests | 193 | ||
| References | 193 | ||
| 19 Infertility and Subfertility in the Male | 194 | ||
| Assessment of Male Fertility | 194 | ||
| History and Initial Clinical Evaluation | 194 | ||
| Evaluation of Infertility or Subfertility | 195 | ||
| Testicular Biopsy | 195 | ||
| Poor Libido | 196 | ||
| Erection Failure | 197 | ||
| Ejaculation Failure | 198 | ||
| Azoospermia and Oligozoospermia | 199 | ||
| Trace Mineral Deficiency | 199 | ||
| Heat Stress | 200 | ||
| Case Management | 200 | ||
| Teratozoospermia | 200 | ||
| Physical Problems as a Source of Infertility or Subfertility | 202 | ||
| Disorders of the Prepuce | 202 | ||
| Preputial Attachment of the Penis | 202 | ||
| Prolapse of the Prepuce | 203 | ||
| Trauma and Posthitis | 203 | ||
| Edema of the Prepuce | 203 | ||
| Disorders of the Penis | 203 | ||
| Prolapse of the Penis (Paraphimosis) | 204 | ||
| Trauma: Balanitis, Abrasions, Ulcerations, and Hair Rings | 205 | ||
| Penile Warts | 205 | ||
| Rupture of Urethra and Urolithiasis | 205 | ||
| Urethritis | 205 | ||
| Hypospadias | 206 | ||
| Disorders of the Testes | 206 | ||
| Cryptorchidism | 206 | ||
| Testicular Hypoplasia | 207 | ||
| Testicular Cysts | 208 | ||
| Ectopic Testes | 208 | ||
| Hydrocele | 208 | ||
| Testicular Degeneration | 209 | ||
| Orchitis | 210 | ||
| Testicular Neoplasia | 212 | ||
| Epididymal Abnormalities | 212 | ||
| Disorders of the Accessory Sex Glands | 214 | ||
| Unexplained Infertility or Subfertility in the Male | 214 | ||
| References | 215 | ||
| 20 Infertility and Subfertility in the Female Camelid | 216 | ||
| Common Presenting Complaints | 216 | ||
| General Approach to Diagnosis of Infertility in the Female Camelid | 217 | ||
| Repeat Breeding Syndrome | 217 | ||
| Early Embryonic Death | 217 | ||
| Specific Disorders of the Reproductive System in the Female | 218 | ||
| Ovarian Disorders | 218 | ||
| Congenital Abnormalities of the Ovary | 219 | ||
| Acquired Ovarian Disorders | 221 | ||
| Cystic Conditions of the Ovary | 221 | ||
| Ovarian Inactivity | 221 | ||
| Ovulation Failure | 221 | ||
| Persistent Luteal Activity | 222 | ||
| Luteal Insufficiency | 222 | ||
| Ovarian Neoplasia | 222 | ||
| Other Ovarian and Ovariobursal Diseases | 222 | ||
| Uterotubal Diseases | 224 | ||
| Disorders of the Uterus | 225 | ||
| Congenital Disorders of the Uterus | 225 | ||
| Endometritis and Metritis | 225 | ||
| Predisposing Factors and Etiopathogenesis | 226 | ||
| Diagnosis | 227 | ||
| Therapeutic Approach and Prevention | 228 | ||
| Pyometra and Mucometra | 229 | ||
| Other Uterine Pathologies | 230 | ||
| Diseases of the Cervix | 231 | ||
| Diseases of the Vagina and Vulva | 231 | ||
| References | 242 | ||
| 21 Cytogenetics and Infertility | 243 | ||
| Alpaca, Llama, and Camel Chromosomes | 243 | ||
| The Species | 243 | ||
| Chromosome Number and Karyotypes | 243 | ||
| Chromosome Measurements | 244 | ||
| Banding Techniques Applied to Study Camelid Chromosomes | 244 | ||
| GTG-Banding | 244 | ||
| C-Banding | 244 | ||
| Nucleolus-Organizing Regions | 244 | ||
| Other Banding Methods | 244 | ||
| Chromosome Nomenclature | 245 | ||
| Molecular Cytogenetics | 246 | ||
| Clinical Cytogenetics | 247 | ||
| Clinical Karyotyping | 247 | ||
| Numeric Chromosome Abnormalities | 247 | ||
| Structural Chromosomal Abnormalities | 247 | ||
| Sex Chromosome Chimerism | 248 | ||
| Sex Reversal Syndrome | 248 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 248 | ||
| References | 249 | ||
| 22 Diagnosis of Pregnancy and Evaluation of High-Risk Pregnancy | 250 | ||
| Diagnosis of Pregnancy | 250 | ||
| Sexual Behavior | 250 | ||
| Progesterone | 250 | ||
| Estrone Sulfate | 251 | ||
| Relaxin | 251 | ||
| Palpation per Rectum | 251 | ||
| Ultrasonography | 251 | ||
| High-Risk Pregnancy and Evaluation of Fetal Well-Being | 252 | ||
| Clinical Evaluation of the Dam | 254 | ||
| Palpation per Rectum | 254 | ||
| Vaginal Examination | 254 | ||
| Endocrinologic Evaluation | 254 | ||
| Ultrasonography | 254 | ||
| Twin Pregnancy | 255 | ||
| References | 255 | ||
| 23 Disorders and Diseases of Pregnancy | 256 | ||
| Pregnancy Loss | 256 | ||
| General Approach to Diagnosis of Pregnancy Loss or Abortion | 257 | ||
| Etiology | 258 | ||
| Infectious Causes of Pregnancy Loss | 259 | ||
| Viral Causes of Abortion | 259 | ||
| Bacterial Causes of Abortion | 260 | ||
| Protozoal Causes of Abortion | 261 | ||
| Noninfectious Causes of Pregnancy Loss | 262 | ||
| Iatrogenic Causes of Abortion | 262 | ||
| Nutritional Causes of Abortion | 262 | ||
| Maternal Causes of Noninfectious Abortion | 262 | ||
| Fetal and Placental Noninfectious Causes of Abortion | 263 | ||
| Prevention of Abortion | 265 | ||
| Placentitis | 265 | ||
| Ketosis | 266 | ||
| Vaginal Prolapse | 267 | ||
| Uterine Torsion | 269 | ||
| Prolonged Pregnancy | 272 | ||
| Other Conditions of Pregnancy | 272 | ||
| References | 272 | ||
| 24 Parturition and Obstetrics | 274 | ||
| Normal Parturition (Eutocia) | 274 | ||
| Pregnancy Length and Premonitory Signs of Parturition | 274 | ||
| Stages of Parturition | 274 | ||
| Induction of Parturition | 276 | ||
| Incidence and Causes of Dystocia | 276 | ||
| Approach to Dystocia in Camelids | 277 | ||
| Clinical Evaluation of the Dam | 277 | ||
| Determination of Fetal Position and Viability | 278 | ||
| Obstetric Manipulations | 278 | ||
| Assisted Vaginal Delivery | 279 | ||
| Controlled Vaginal Delivery | 279 | ||
| Fetotomy | 279 | ||
| Hysterotomy or Cesarean Section | 279 | ||
| Correction of Specific Common Obstetric Situations | 279 | ||
| Dystocia of Maternal Origin | 279 | ||
| Insufficient Vulvar or Vestibular–Vaginal Dilation | 279 | ||
| Uterine Torsion | 280 | ||
| Uterine Inertia | 281 | ||
| Failure of Cervical Dilation | 281 | ||
| Dystocia of Fetal Origin | 281 | ||
| Incomplete Elbow Extension | 281 | ||
| Foot Nape Posture | 281 | ||
| Head and Neck Deviations | 281 | ||
| Carpal and Shoulder (Forelimb) Flexion | 282 | ||
| Hock Flexion | 283 | ||
| Bilateral Hip Flexion (Breech Presentation) | 283 | ||
| Fetomaternal Disproportion (Fetal Oversize) | 285 | ||
| Twins | 285 | ||
| Fetal Abnormalities | 285 | ||
| Medical Management after Dystocia | 285 | ||
| References | 285 | ||
| 25 Lactation and Neonatal Care | 286 | ||
| Prenatal Care | 286 | ||
| Postnatal Care | 286 | ||
| Normal Behavior of the Newborn Cria | 287 | ||
| Evaluation of Passive Transfer of Immunity | 288 | ||
| Prophylactic Treatments of the Newborn | 289 | ||
| Identification of High-Risk Neonates | 289 | ||
| Emergencies in First 24 Hours of Life | 289 | ||
| Failure of Passive Transfer (FPT) | 290 | ||
| Orphaned Crias | 291 | ||
| Congenital Abnormalities | 291 | ||
| Maxillofacial Abnormalities | 291 | ||
| Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Abnormalities | 292 | ||
| Cardiac Abnormalities | 292 | ||
| Skeletal Defects | 293 | ||
| Defects of the Urogenital System | 293 | ||
| Abnormalities of Sensory Organs | 293 | ||
| Meconium Impaction | 293 | ||
| Urine Retention | 294 | ||
| Umbilical Abnormalities | 294 | ||
| Exposure | 294 | ||
| Lactation | 295 | ||
| Anatomy of the Mammary Gland | 295 | ||
| Development of the Mammary Gland | 295 | ||
| Lactation and Properties of Milk | 295 | ||
| References | 296 | ||
| 26 Postpartum Disorders | 297 | ||
| Examination of the Postparturient Female | 298 | ||
| Examination of the Placenta | 299 | ||
| Retained Fetal Membranes (Retained Placenta) | 300 | ||
| Postpartum Hemorrhage | 302 | ||
| Cervical Laceration | 302 | ||
| Vaginal Laceration | 303 | ||
| Uterine Tear | 304 | ||
| Rectovaginal Tears or Laceration of the Perineal Body | 304 | ||
| Necrotic Vaginitis and Vaginal Adhesions | 304 | ||
| Vaginal, Vulvar, and Perineal Bruising | 305 | ||
| Uterine Prolapse | 305 | ||
| Vaginal Prolapse | 306 | ||
| Postpartum Metritis | 306 | ||
| Postpartum Downer Syndrome | 308 | ||
| Agalactia | 308 | ||
| Mastitis | 309 | ||
| References | 309 | ||
| 27 Artificial Insemination of Llamas and Alpacas | 310 | ||
| Semen Collection and Initial Preparation for Dilution | 310 | ||
| Extenders and Semen Dilution | 310 | ||
| Semen Cryopreservation | 310 | ||
| Freezing and Thawing | 311 | ||
| Artificial Insemination | 311 | ||
| References | 314 | ||
| 28 Embryo Transfer | 315 | ||
| History | 315 | ||
| Donor and Recipient Selection | 316 | ||
| Donor Selection | 316 | ||
| Recipient Selection | 316 | ||
| Breeding Management and Timing of Embryo Collection in Non–superstimulated Donors | 317 | ||
| Embryo Collection Technique | 317 | ||
| Evaluation of Embryos | 318 | ||
| Embryo Transfer | 318 | ||
| Ovarian Superstimulation | 319 | ||
| Control of Follicular Dynamics before Superstimulation | 320 | ||
| Ovarian Superstimulation | 320 | ||
| Interspecies Embryo Transfer in South American Camelids | 321 | ||
| References | 321 | ||
| 29 Embryo Preservation and in Vitro Production of Embryos | 322 | ||
| In Vitro Embryo Production | 323 | ||
| Postmortem Oocyte Collection | 323 | ||
| In Vivo Collection of Oocytes | 323 | ||
| Ovarian Stimulation | 323 | ||
| Oocyte Recovery | 323 | ||
| In Vivo Oocyte Maturation | 323 | ||
| Embryo in Vitro Production Techniques | 323 | ||
| Nuclear Transfer | 324 | ||
| In Vitro Culture of Embryos | 324 | ||
| Semen Preparation | 325 | ||
| Semen Characteristics | 325 | ||
| Separation of Spermatozoa from Seminal Plasma | 325 | ||
| Selection of Motile Spermatozoa | 325 | ||
| Embryo Preservation | 326 | ||
| Acknowledgments | 326 | ||
| References | 326 | ||
| 4 Principles of Health Care | 328 | ||
| 30 Physical Examination and Conformation | 328 | ||
| Evaluation of Management and Environmental Factors | 328 | ||
| Observation and Inspection of the Patient | 328 | ||
| Soundness | 330 | ||
| Close Physical Examination | 330 | ||
| Rectal Temperature | 330 | ||
| Peripheral Pulse | 330 | ||
| Respiratory Rate or Character | 330 | ||
| Body Condition Score | 331 | ||
| Visible Mucous Membranes | 331 | ||
| Appearance of Feces | 331 | ||
| Condition of Wool | 331 | ||
| Assessment of Skin | 331 | ||
| Eyes | 332 | ||
| Ears | 332 | ||
| Nares | 332 | ||
| Jaw Alignment and Teeth | 332 | ||
| Lymph Nodes | 333 | ||
| Gender Emphasis | 333 | ||
| Auscultation Procedures | 333 | ||
| Special Examinations | 333 | ||
| Rectal Examination | 333 | ||
| Oral Cavity | 334 | ||
| Musculoskeletal and Nervous Systems | 334 | ||
| Urinary Tract | 334 | ||
| Reproductive Tract | 334 | ||
| Urine Collection | 335 | ||
| Obtaining Peripheral Blood | 335 | ||
| Lymph Node Biopsy | 336 | ||
| The Neonate | 336 | ||
| Conformation | 336 | ||
| Supplemental Reading | 337 | ||
| 31 Clinical Pathology | 338 | ||
| Hematology | 338 | ||
| Erythrocytes | 338 | ||
| Normal Red Blood Cell Parameters | 338 | ||
| Anemia | 338 | ||
| Leukocytes | 340 | ||
| Platelets | 341 | ||
| Hemostasis | 341 | ||
| Blood Biochemical Analysis and Interpretation | 341 | ||
| What Constitutes the Ideal Panel? | 341 | ||
| Electrolytes | 341 | ||
| Acid–Base Disturbances | 342 | ||
| Nitrogen Compounds | 343 | ||
| Energy Substrates | 344 | ||
| Proteins | 345 | ||
| Liver, Muscle, and Pancreatic Enzymes | 346 | ||
| Bile Acids and Bilirubin | 347 | ||
| Minerals | 347 | ||
| Analysis of Body Fluids | 347 | ||
| Peritoneal Fluid | 347 | ||
| Pleural Fluid | 348 | ||
| Tracheal Aspirates | 348 | ||
| Cerebrospinal Fluid | 348 | ||
| Joint Fluid | 348 | ||
| References | 348 | ||
| 32 Fluid Therapy | 350 | ||
| Indications | 350 | ||
| Assessment | 351 | ||
| Routes | 351 | ||
| Oral Fluids and Orogastric Intubation | 351 | ||
| Intravenous Catheterization | 352 | ||
| Intravenous Fluids | 355 | ||
| Colloids | 356 | ||
| Reference | 356 | ||
| 33 Nutritional Support | 357 | ||
| Role of Supportive Nutrition in Disease | 357 | ||
| Characterizing the Hypermetabolic State | 357 | ||
| Consequences of Hypermetabolism | 357 | ||
| Clinical Assessment for Nutritional Support | 358 | ||
| History and Signalment of Problem | 358 | ||
| Determination of Intake Ability | 358 | ||
| Estimation of Digestion or Absorption Ability | 359 | ||
| Nutritional Status | 359 | ||
| Enteral Nutritional Support | 359 | ||
| Rationale for Use | 359 | ||
| Appetite Stimulation | 359 | ||
| Transfaunation | 360 | ||
| Supplementation Methods | 360 | ||
| Nutrient Sources | 360 | ||
| Parenteral Nutritional Support | 361 | ||
| Rationale for Use | 361 | ||
| Formulation Methodology | 361 | ||
| Application Methods | 362 | ||
| Fluid Preparation | 362 | ||
| Administration | 362 | ||
| Monitoring | 364 | ||
| References | 364 | ||
| 34 Drug Therapy in Llamas and Alpacas | 365 | ||
| Framework for Evaluating Evidence about Drugs and Drug Selection | 365 | ||
| Features Affecting Drug Selection and Use | 365 | ||
| Anatomy and Physiology | 365 | ||
| Clinical Setting | 366 | ||
| Review of the Principles of Drug Selection | 367 | ||
| Principles of Reviewing for Evidence | 367 | ||
| Principles of Extrapolating | 368 | ||
| Principles of Antimicrobial Drug Therapy | 368 | ||
| Amount of Drug Necessary to Inhibit Growth. | 368 | ||
| Dose Regimen. | 369 | ||
| Reported Clinical Success with the Regimen. | 369 | ||
| Reported or Clinical Experience with Adverse Effects. | 369 | ||
| Collation of Published Evidence on Pharmacotherapeutics in Llamas and Alpacas | 369 | ||
| Evidence Level 1 | 369 | ||
| Evidence Level 2 | 369 | ||
| Evidence Level 3 | 369 | ||
| Evidence Level 4 | 369 | ||
| Evidence Level 5 | 375 | ||
| Evidence Level 6 | 375 | ||
| Summary of Published Evidence | 376 | ||
| The Future of Drug Therapy | 376 | ||
| References | 376 | ||
| 5 Medical Disorders | 379 | ||
| 35 Disorders of the Skin | 379 | ||
| Normal Hair and Skin | 379 | ||
| Skin Disorders | 380 | ||
| Heavily Fleeced Areas | 380 | ||
| Lightly Fleeced Areas | 382 | ||
| Mucocutaneous Junctions | 389 | ||
| Specialized Skin Structures | 390 | ||
| Foot Pad Erosions and Interdigital Disease | 391 | ||
| References | 391 | ||
| 36 Diseases of the Cardiovascular and Hemolymphatic Systems | 393 | ||
| The Cardiovascular System | 393 | ||
| Clinical Evaluation | 393 | ||
| Physical Examination | 393 | ||
| Electrocardiography | 394 | ||
| Thoracic Radiology | 395 | ||
| Echocardiography | 396 | ||
| Arterial Blood Gas Analysis | 398 | ||
| Congenital Heart Defects | 398 | ||
| Ventricular Septal Defects | 399 | ||
| Patent Ductus Arteriosus | 400 | ||
| Atrial Septal Defects and Patent Foramen Ovale | 400 | ||
| Congenital Valve Stenosis and Insufficiency | 401 | ||
| Cyanosis-Producing Congenital Heart Defects | 401 | ||
| Vascular Ring Anomalies | 403 | ||
| Other Vascular Defects | 405 | ||
| Acquired Cardiac Diseases | 405 | ||
| Pericardial Disease | 405 | ||
| Endocarditis | 405 | ||
| Valvular Insufficiency | 406 | ||
| Primary Myocardial Diseases | 406 | ||
| Secondary Myocardial Diseases | 407 | ||
| Sarcocystis. | 407 | ||
| Ionophore Toxicosis. | 408 | ||
| Oleander. | 408 | ||
| Other Plant Cardiotoxins. | 409 | ||
| Neoplasia | 409 | ||
| White Muscle Disease | 409 | ||
| The Hemolymphatic System | 409 | ||
| Anemia | 409 | ||
| Bone Marrow Analysis | 412 | ||
| Nitrates, Nitrites, and Cyanide | 413 | ||
| Polycythemia or Erythrocytosis | 413 | ||
| Granulocytic Anaplasmosis | 413 | ||
| Juvenile Llama Immunodeficiency Syndrome | 413 | ||
| Myelodysplasia | 414 | ||
| Malignant Round Cell Tumors, including Lymphoma, Neuroendocrine Tumors, and Myeloid Leukemia | 414 | ||
| Caseous Lymphadenitis and Other Soft Tissue Abscesses | 415 | ||
| Adult Sepsis | 416 | ||
| Bovine Viral Diarrhea Virus Infection | 417 | ||
| References | 419 | ||
| 37 Diseases of the Respiratory Tract | 421 | ||
| Anatomy | 421 | ||
| Examination | 422 | ||
| Supplemental Oxygen and Ventilation | 423 | ||
| Diseases of the Respiratory Tract | 423 | ||
| Dorsal Displacement of the Soft Palate (Pharyngeal Collapse) | 423 | ||
| Laryngeal Edema | 424 | ||
| Arytenoid Chondritis and Laryngeal Abscessation | 424 | ||
| Retropharyngeal Lymphadenopathy | 424 | ||
| Nasal Bots | 424 | ||
| Upper Airway Malformations | 425 | ||
| Fungal Rhinitis and Sinusitis | 426 | ||
| Snake Bite | 426 | ||
| Sinusitis | 427 | ||
| Neoplasia | 427 | ||
| Lower Respiratory tract | 428 | ||
| Acute Pneumonia | 428 | ||
| Viral Pneumonia. | 428 | ||
| Bluetongue. | 428 | ||
| Bacterial Pneumonia and Pleuropneumonia. | 429 | ||
| Streptococcal Infections (Alpaca Fever, Preston Disease) | 429 | ||
| Aspiration Pneumonia | 430 | ||
| Pulmonary Edema and Shock Lung | 431 | ||
| Pulmonary Dysmaturity | 431 | ||
| Chronic Pneumonia | 431 | ||
| Tuberculosis and other Mycobacterial Infections | 432 | ||
| Mycotic Pneumonia and Other Disorders | 432 | ||
| Parasitic Pneumonia | 433 | ||
| Neoplasia | 434 | ||
| Reactive Airway Disease | 434 | ||
| Chylothorax | 434 | ||
| Hemothorax and Pneumothorax | 434 | ||
| Diaphragmatic Hernia | 434 | ||
| Diaphragmatic Paralysis | 434 | ||
| Nonseptic Consolidation Associated with Recumbency | 435 | ||
| Changes of Unknown Significance | 435 | ||
| Pulmonary Alveolar Histiocytosis or Lipid Pneumonia | 435 | ||
| References | 435 | ||
| 38 Disorders of the Neurologic System and Special Senses | 437 | ||
| The Neurologic Examination | 437 | ||
| Cerebrospinal Fluid Collection | 438 | ||
| Diagnostic Imaging | 439 | ||
| Cerebral Disorders | 440 | ||
| Antiseizure Medications | 440 | ||
| Hydrocephalus and Hydranencephaly | 440 | ||
| Polioencephalomalacia and Other Causes of Cerebral Necrosis | 440 | ||
| Cerebral Edema | 441 | ||
| Toxic Neuropathies and Neurohepatopathies | 442 | ||
| Idiopathic Epilepsy | 442 | ||
| Cranial Trauma and Intracranial Hemorrhage | 442 | ||
| Bacterial Meningitis, Encephalitis, and Myelitis | 443 | ||
| Viral Encephalitis | 443 | ||
| Fungal Meningoencephalitis | 447 | ||
| Focal Bacterial Infection of the Central Nervous System | 447 | ||
| Verminous Encephalitis | 448 | ||
| Tumors | 448 | ||
| Cerebellar Lesions | 448 | ||
| Flaccid Paralysis | 450 | ||
| Other Lesions Causing Predominantly Spinal or Peripheral Signs | 451 | ||
| Parasitic Encephalitis and Myelitis | 453 | ||
| Extradural Mass Lesions | 453 | ||
| Tetany | 454 | ||
| Deafness and Hearing Loss | 455 | ||
| Diseases Primarily Affecting the Eyes | 456 | ||
| Ophthalmic Examination | 456 | ||
| Normal Ocular Anatomy | 457 | ||
| Diseases Primarily Affecting the Eyes | 458 | ||
| References | 462 | ||
| 39 Disorders of the Urinary System | 464 | ||
| Congenital Lesions | 466 | ||
| Acquired Urinary Tract Obstruction | 468 | ||
| Cystitis, Urethritis, and Prostatitis | 471 | ||
| Bladder Rupture | 471 | ||
| Renal Hematuria | 472 | ||
| Nephritis | 472 | ||
| Toxic Nephropathy and Acute Renal Failure | 473 | ||
| Postpartum Incontinence | 475 | ||
| Neoplasms | 475 | ||
| References | 476 | ||
| 40 Disorders of the Digestive System | 477 | ||
| Anatomy and Physiology | 477 | ||
| Lips, Tongue, and Oral Cavity | 477 | ||
| Dentition | 477 | ||
| Salivary Glands and Saliva | 478 | ||
| Cud-Chewing Behavior | 479 | ||
| Esophagus | 479 | ||
| Gastric Anatomy and Physiology | 479 | ||
| First and Second Compartments | 480 | ||
| Forestomach Motility | 481 | ||
| The Third Compartment | 482 | ||
| Third Compartment Motility | 482 | ||
| Omentum | 482 | ||
| Small Intestine | 482 | ||
| Cecum, Colon, and Rectum | 483 | ||
| Mesentery, Blood Supply, and Innervation | 484 | ||
| Diagnostic Approaches | 484 | ||
| Behavior | 484 | ||
| Physical Examination and Diagnostic Tests | 484 | ||
| Rectal Examination | 484 | ||
| Abdominal Paracentesis | 485 | ||
| Forestomach Fluid Analysis | 485 | ||
| Blood Interpretation | 486 | ||
| Fecal Occult Blood Analysis | 486 | ||
| Radiography | 486 | ||
| Ultrasonography | 486 | ||
| Endoscopy | 487 | ||
| Exploratory or Laparoscopic Surgery | 487 | ||
| Oral Disorders | 487 | ||
| Ulcerative and Proliferative Lip Lesions | 487 | ||
| Fibropapilloma | 488 | ||
| Oral Mucosal Lesions | 488 | ||
| Ptyalism, Pseudoptaylism, and Cud Spilling | 488 | ||
| Malocclusion | 489 | ||
| Jaw Masses | 489 | ||
| Esophageal Disorders | 491 | ||
| Choke | 491 | ||
| Megaesophagus | 492 | ||
| Esophagitis | 493 | ||
| Gastric Disorders | 494 | ||
| Mineralized Gastroliths and Foreign Bodies | 494 | ||
| Grain Overload or Forestomach Acidosis | 495 | ||
| Ulcerative Gastritis | 496 | ||
| First Compartment Ulcers | 496 | ||
| Third Compartment and Duodenal Peptic Ulcers | 497 | ||
| Neoplasia | 499 | ||
| Clostridial Gastroenteritis or Enterotoxemia | 499 | ||
| Gastric Impaction | 500 | ||
| Parasitic Gastroenteritis | 501 | ||
| Strongyles | 501 | ||
| Protozoa | 502 | ||
| Diagnosis of Parasitic Gastroenteritis | 505 | ||
| Treatment | 509 | ||
| Diarrhea | 510 | ||
| Diarrhea in Crias | 511 | ||
| Clinical Syndromes in Camelids of All Ages | 511 | ||
| Acute Diarrhea | 512 | ||
| Bacteria | 512 | ||
| Viruses | 513 | ||
| Rotavirus. | 513 | ||
| Coronavirus. | 513 | ||
| Other Viruses. | 513 | ||
| Parasites | 513 | ||
| Forestomach Acidosis | 513 | ||
| Peritonitis | 514 | ||
| Diagnosis | 514 | ||
| Frequency | 515 | ||
| Treatment | 515 | ||
| Prevention | 516 | ||
| Chronic Diarrhea and Weight Loss | 516 | ||
| Neoplastic Disorders | 517 | ||
| Lymphoma. | 517 | ||
| Squamous Cell Carcinoma. | 517 | ||
| Nonneoplastic Inflammatory Bowel Diseases | 518 | ||
| Paratuberculosis (Johne disease) and Other Chronic Bacterial Disorders. | 518 | ||
| Eosinophilic or Lymphocytic–Plasmocytic Enteritis (Inflammatory Bowel Disease). | 519 | ||
| Idiopathic Muscular Hypertrophy. | 520 | ||
| Internal Parasitism | 520 | ||
| Colic | 520 | ||
| Specific Causes | 521 | ||
| Frequency | 524 | ||
| Diagnosis | 524 | ||
| Clinical Characteristics | 524 | ||
| Rectal Palpation | 526 | ||
| Clinical Pathology | 526 | ||
| Complete Blood Cell Count | 526 | ||
| Acid–Base Balance | 526 | ||
| Electrolytes | 526 | ||
| Other Blood Constituents | 527 | ||
| Abdominal Paracentesis | 527 | ||
| Abdominal Imaging | 527 | ||
| Radiography | 527 | ||
| Ultrasonography | 528 | ||
| Summary | 528 | ||
| Treatment | 529 | ||
| Medical Treatment | 529 | ||
| Surgical Approaches | 532 | ||
| Postoperative Peritonitis | 532 | ||
| Atresia | 532 | ||
| References | 533 | ||
| 41 Hepatic, Pancreatic, and Metabolic Disorders | 537 | ||
| Basic Camelid Energy Metabolism | 537 | ||
| Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism | 539 | ||
| Stress Hyperglycemia | 539 | ||
| Diabetes Mellitus | 539 | ||
| Hyperosmolar Disorder | 539 | ||
| Hyperadrenocorticism or Glucocorticoid Administration | 540 | ||
| Pancreatic Necrosis | 540 | ||
| Hypoglycemia | 540 | ||
| Monitoring Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism | 541 | ||
| Treatment of Disorders of Carbohydrate Metabolism | 541 | ||
| Disorders of Lipid Metabolism | 541 | ||
| Exuberant Lipid Mobilization (Ketosis, Ketonemia, Acetonemia) | 541 | ||
| Hepatic Lipidosis | 541 | ||
| Hyperlipemia | 542 | ||
| Diagnosing and Monitoring Disorders of Lipid Metabolism | 543 | ||
| Treatment for Disorders of Fat Metabolism | 543 | ||
| Metabolic Acidosis | 544 | ||
| Liver Disorders | 545 | ||
| Hepatitis | 545 | ||
| Toxic Hepatopathy | 545 | ||
| Hepatic Necrosis | 546 | ||
| Liver Flukes | 546 | ||
| Lamanema Migration | 547 | ||
| Tapeworms | 548 | ||
| Passive Congestion of the Liver | 548 | ||
| Hepatic Neoplasms | 548 | ||
| Portosystemic Shunt | 548 | ||
| Vitamins and Minerals | 549 | ||
| Pancreatic Disorders | 549 | ||
| Pancreatic Necrosis | 549 | ||
| Pancreatic Atrophy | 549 | ||
| Hyperthermia, Heat Stress, and Heat Stroke | 549 | ||
| Hypothermia | 551 | ||
| References | 551 | ||
| 42 Neonatology and Neonatal Disorders | 552 | ||
| The Abnormal Neonate | 552 | ||
| The Critical Cria | 555 | ||
| Blood Evaluation | 555 | ||
| Fluid Therapy | 556 | ||
| Hypothermia | 557 | ||
| Fever and Hyperthermia | 557 | ||
| Sepsis | 558 | ||
| Respiratory Dysfunction | 559 | ||
| Seizures | 561 | ||
| Heart Murmurs and Cardiac Defects | 561 | ||
| Abdominal Pain or Distension | 562 | ||
| Congenital Defects | 564 | ||
| Meconium Impaction | 565 | ||
| Nutritional Problems | 565 | ||
| Umbilical Abscessation | 566 | ||
| Fluid Accumulation in the Peritoneal Cavity | 566 | ||
| Intestinal Obstruction | 567 | ||
| Third Compartment Ulceration | 567 | ||
| Diarrhea and Enteritis | 568 | ||
| Urinary System Abnormalities | 569 | ||
| Congenital Defects | 569 | ||
| Renal Failure | 570 | ||
| Locomotor Disorders | 570 | ||
| Ligament Laxity | 571 | ||
| Flexural Limb Deformities | 571 | ||
| Rickets and Angular Limb Deformities | 571 | ||
| Joint Ill | 573 | ||
| References | 573 | ||
| 6 Anesthesia and Analgesia | 576 | ||
| 43 Practical Pharmacokinetics of Anesthetic Drugs | 576 | ||
| Physiologic Concepts | 576 | ||
| Pharmacokinetic Parameters and Dosage Regimens | 576 | ||
| Single Intravenous Dose | 577 | ||
| Constant Rate Intravenous Infusions | 578 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 579 | ||
| 44 Preprocedure Considerations | 579 | ||
| Preprocedure Considerations | 579 | ||
| Physical Examination | 579 | ||
| Site Selection and Facility Requirements | 579 | ||
| Patient Positioning | 580 | ||
| Endotracheal Intubation | 580 | ||
| Intravenous Catheters Are “Expensive” and Time Consuming: Are They Really Necessary? | 582 | ||
| Fasting before Anesthesia | 582 | ||
| Eye Protection | 582 | ||
| Oxygen Delivery and Muscle and Nerve Protection | 582 | ||
| Why Is Premedication Important? | 583 | ||
| Important Information on Selected Drugs Used in Chemical Restraint and Anesthesia | 584 | ||
| α2-Adrenergic Agonists | 584 | ||
| α2-Adrenergic Agonist Reversal | 585 | ||
| Benzodiazepines | 585 | ||
| Butorphanol | 585 | ||
| Guaifenesin | 585 | ||
| Atropine | 586 | ||
| Ketamine, Telazol, and Thiopental | 586 | ||
| References | 586 | ||
| 45 Chemical Restraint of Camelids | 587 | ||
| Ketamine Stun | 587 | ||
| Intravenous Ketamine Stun | 588 | ||
| Intramuscular Ketamine Stun | 589 | ||
| Xylazine | 589 | ||
| Butorphanol | 590 | ||
| Xylazine–Butorphanol | 590 | ||
| Diazepam–Butorphanol | 590 | ||
| Intravenous Xylazine–Ketamine | 590 | ||
| Intramuscular Xylazine–Ketamine | 591 | ||
| Ruminant Telazol–Ketamine–Xylazine (TKX-Ru) | 591 | ||
| References | 592 | ||
| 46 Injectable Anesthesia of Camelids | 592 | ||
| Ketamine Stun | 593 | ||
| Intravenous Xylazine–Ketamine | 593 | ||
| Intramuscular Xylazine–Ketamine | 593 | ||
| Butorphanol–Ketamine–Xylazine (BKX) | 594 | ||
| Double Drip | 594 | ||
| Ruminant Triple Drip (GKX-Ru) | 594 | ||
| Ketamine–Diazepam (Ket-Val) | 595 | ||
| References | 595 | ||
| 47 Inhalation Anesthesia in South American Camelids | 595 | ||
| Equipment | 595 | ||
| General Anesthesia | 596 | ||
| Intubation | 596 | ||
| Maintenance | 597 | ||
| Monitoring | 597 | ||
| Supportive Therapy | 599 | ||
| Recovery | 599 | ||
| Suggested Readings | 600 | ||
| 48 Local and Regional Analgesic Techniques in Camelids | 600 | ||
| Drugs Used for Locoregional Analgesia | 601 | ||
| Adverse Effects | 601 | ||
| Specific Techniques | 601 | ||
| Field Blocks | 602 | ||
| Oral Blocks | 602 | ||
| Cranial Infraorbital Block | 602 | ||
| Mandibular or Alveolar Block | 602 | ||
| Mental Nerve Block | 603 | ||
| Testicular Blocks | 603 | ||
| Interdigital Block and Abaxial Nerve Block | 603 | ||
| Ocular Blocks | 603 | ||
| Paravertebral Blocks | 603 | ||
| Brachial Plexus Block | 603 | ||
| Intercostal Block | 604 | ||
| Specific Nerve Blocks | 604 | ||
| Bier Block | 604 | ||
| Intraarticular Block | 604 | ||
| Epidurals | 604 | ||
| References | 606 | ||
| 49 Perioperative Management of Compromised Camelid Patients | 607 | ||
| Preanesthetic Database | 607 | ||
| Anesthetic Equipment | 607 | ||
| Intravenous Access | 607 | ||
| Airway Management | 607 | ||
| Anesthetic Techniques | 608 | ||
| Monitoring during Anesthesia | 608 | ||
| Support during Anesthesia | 608 | ||
| References | 609 | ||
| 50 Obstetric Anesthesia in South American Camelids | 609 | ||
| Why Might South American Camelids Require Sedation or Anesthesia for Obstetric Procedures? | 609 | ||
| Cardiovascular Effects of Pregnancy | 610 | ||
| The Respiratory System | 610 | ||
| Uterus | 610 | ||
| Gastrointestinal Tract, Renal, and Hepatic Effects | 610 | ||
| Pharmacokinetics | 610 | ||
| How to Manage Anesthesia for Nonobstetric Reasons in Pregnant Animals | 610 | ||
| Anesthesia for Obstetric Manipulation | 610 | ||
| Epidural Anesthesia | 611 | ||
| Local Anesthetic Options for Cesarean Section | 611 | ||
| General Anesthesia for Cesarean Section | 611 | ||
| Sedation or Premedication | 611 | ||
| Before Induction | 611 | ||
| Anesthetic Induction and Tracheal Intubation | 611 | ||
| Maintenance of Anesthesia | 611 | ||
| Monitoring of Anesthesia | 612 | ||
| Intravenous Fluid Therapy and Analgesia | 612 | ||
| Recovery from Anesthesia | 612 | ||
| References | 612 | ||
| 51 Neuroanesthesia for South American Camelids | 612 | ||
| Why Might South American Camelids Require Brain Neuroanesthesia? | 612 | ||
| Neuroanesthesia for the Brain | 613 | ||
| The Monroe-Kellie Doctrine | 613 | ||
| Intracranial Pressure Regulation | 613 | ||
| Why Is Elevated Intracranial Pressure a Problem? | 613 | ||
| Aims of Anesthetic Management | 614 | ||
| How Can We Alleviate Raised Intracranial Pressure? | 614 | ||
| How Should We Manage Anesthesia in South American Camelids with Brain Disease? | 615 | ||
| Preanesthetic Medication | 615 | ||
| Preoxygenation and Endotracheal Intubation | 615 | ||
| Anesthetic Induction | 615 | ||
| Anesthetic Maintenance | 616 | ||
| Breathing System | 616 | ||
| Monitoring of Anesthesia | 616 | ||
| Analgesia | 616 | ||
| Intravenous Fluid Therapy | 616 | ||
| Temperature | 617 | ||
| Recovery from Anesthesia | 617 | ||
| Cerebrospinal Fluid Sampling | 617 | ||
| Magnetic Resonance Imaging | 617 | ||
| Anesthesia for Spinal Surgery | 617 | ||
| Myelography | 617 | ||
| References | 617 | ||
| 52 Pain Management in Camelids: | 618 | ||
| Are We Treating Pain? | 618 | ||
| Pain in Mammals | 618 | ||
| Recognition of Pain | 618 | ||
| Economics of Pain Management | 618 | ||
| Lack of Knowledge of Analgesic Drugs and Techniques and Fear of Side Effects | 619 | ||
| Why Should We Treat Pain? | 619 | ||
| Principles of Pain Management | 619 | ||
| Analgesic Drugs and Techniques | 619 | ||
| Nonsteroidal Antiinflammatory Drugs | 619 | ||
| Local Anesthetic Drugs | 620 | ||
| Opioids | 620 | ||
| α2-Agonists | 622 | ||
| Opioid–α2-Agonist Combinations | 622 | ||
| Constant Rate Infusion | 622 | ||
| Opioids | 622 | ||
| Lidocaine | 622 | ||
| Ketamine | 623 | ||
| α2-Agonists | 623 | ||
| Combinations of Opioids, Ketamine, and Lidocaine (and α2-Agonists?) | 623 | ||
| Calculations of Continuous Rate Infusion Dosages | 623 | ||
| Nonpharmacologic Treatment of Pain | 623 | ||
| References | 623 | ||
| 53 Constant Rate Infusion Technique for Management of Severe Pain in Camelids | 624 | ||
| Trifusion | 625 | ||
| Trifusion and Pentafusion Continuous Rate Infusion Technique | 625 | ||
| Pentafusion: Development and Use | 625 | ||
| Pentafusion: Equipment Required | 626 | ||
| Pentafusion: Sample Protocol (450-kg Patient) | 627 | ||
| 7 Surgical Disorders | 649 | ||
| 55 Principles of Surgery | 649 | ||
| Preoperative Considerations | 649 | ||
| Surgical Site Preparation | 649 | ||
| Hair Removal | 649 | ||
| Antiseptics | 650 | ||
| Preparation Time for Patient Asepsis | 651 | ||
| Aseptic Scrubbing Technique | 651 | ||
| Surgeon Preparation | 651 | ||
| Surgical Hand Preparation | 651 | ||
| Gloves | 652 | ||
| Suture Materials: Basic Principles | 652 | ||
| Knot Security of Suture Material | 653 | ||
| References | 655 | ||
| 56 Ocular Surgery | 657 | ||
| Conjunctival Rotating Pedicle Flap | 657 | ||
| Enucleation | 658 | ||
| Nasolacrimal Duct Obstruction | 659 | ||
| References | 660 | ||
| 57 Gastrointestinal Surgery in Alpacas and Llamas | 661 | ||
| Clinical Signs of Surgical Gastrointestinal Disease | 661 | ||
| Diagnostic Testing | 662 | ||
| Surgical Approaches and Techniques | 662 | ||
| Lateral Abdominal Wall Laparotomy | 663 | ||
| Ventral Midline Laparotomy | 663 | ||
| Forestomach Surgery | 664 | ||
| C1 Fistulation | 664 | ||
| Surgery of the Small Intestine | 664 | ||
| Enterotomy | 664 | ||
| Resection of the Intestine | 665 | ||
| Surgery of the Large Intestine | 666 | ||
| Rectal Tears | 667 | ||
| Torsion of the Spleen | 667 | ||
| Complications | 667 | ||
| Prognosis | 667 | ||
| References | 668 | ||
| 58 Musculoskeletal Surgery | 669 | ||
| Musculoskeletal Anatomy | 669 | ||
| Anatomy of the Suspensory Apparatus and Distal Limb | 669 | ||
| Suspensory Ligament | 669 | ||
| Sesamoidean Ligaments | 669 | ||
| Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon | 669 | ||
| Deep Digital Flexor Tendon | 670 | ||
| Lumbricalis Muscle | 671 | ||
| Anatomy of Diarthrodial Joints | 671 | ||
| Carpus | 672 | ||
| Joint Injection Landmarks. | 672 | ||
| Tarsus | 672 | ||
| Joint Injection Landmarks. | 673 | ||
| Metacarpophalangeal or Metatarsophalangeal (Fetlock) Joint | 673 | ||
| Appendices | 745 | ||
| Appendix A | 745 | ||
| Appendix B | 747 | ||
| Appendix C | 749 | ||
| Index | 751 | ||
| A | 751 | ||
| B | 754 | ||
| C | 756 | ||
| D | 760 | ||
| E | 762 | ||
| F | 764 | ||
| G | 766 | ||
| H | 767 | ||
| I | 768 | ||
| J | 770 | ||
| K | 770 | ||
| L | 770 | ||
| M | 772 | ||
| N | 775 | ||
| O | 776 | ||
| P | 777 | ||
| Q | 780 | ||
| R | 780 | ||
| S | 781 | ||
| T | 784 | ||
| U | 786 | ||
| V | 788 | ||
| W | 789 | ||
| X | 789 | ||
| Y | 789 | ||
| Z | 789 |