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Book Details
Abstract
This book provides a clear and readable introduction to the central concepts of clinical neuroscience. The first part of the book deals with fundamental areas of neuroscience required for a sound understanding of brain disease. This is followed by an account of the neurobiology of the most common and important brain diseases of the western world (stroke, epilepsy, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and multiple sclerosis). The book is in the same general style as the successful Crossman: Neuronatomy with extensive colour illustrations.
Short, affordable and readable introductory level text in the smae style as Crossman: Neuroanatomy.
Assumes little previous neuroscience knowledge.
Explains fundamental concepts without overwhelming detail
Focuses on clinically relevant material.
Includes the most common and important neurological disorders.
Table of Contents
| Section Title | Page | Action | Price |
|---|---|---|---|
| Front cover | cover | ||
| Half title page | i | ||
| Clinical Neuroscience | ii | ||
| Copyright page | iv | ||
| Dedication | v | ||
| Preface | vi | ||
| Acknowledgements | vii | ||
| Table of Contents | viii | ||
| 1 Overview of the nervous system | 1 | ||
| Chapter contents | 1 | ||
| Parts of the nervous system | 1 | ||
| Central and peripheral nervous systems | 1 | ||
| Autonomic nervous system | 1 | ||
| Divisions of the ANS | 3 | ||
| Cells of the nervous system | 4 | ||
| Nerve cells (neurons) | 4 | ||
| Grey and white matter | 5 | ||
| Neuroglial cells | 5 | ||
| Basic cerebral topography | 6 | ||
| Cerebrum | 6 | ||
| Crossing of sensory and motor pathways | 6 | ||
| Lateralization of function | 6 | ||
| Internal anatomy | 6 | ||
| Pituitary gland | 6 | ||
| Hemispheric white matter | 8 | ||
| Cerebellum | 10 | ||
| Cerebellar peduncles | 10 | ||
| Brain stem | 11 | ||
| Reticular formation | 11 | ||
| Diffuse neurochemical systems | 11 | ||
| The spinal cord | 13 | ||
| Internal anatomy | 13 | ||
| Protective coverings of the CNS | 14 | ||
| The skull and vertebral column | 14 | ||
| Cranial and spinal meninges | 14 | ||
| Subarachnoid space | 15 | ||
| Dural compartments | 15 | ||
| Subarachnoid cisterns | 16 | ||
| 2 Development of the brain | 19 | ||
| Chapter contents | 19 | ||
| Neural tube formation | 19 | ||
| Origin of neurons and glial cells | 19 | ||
| Formation of the cerebral cortex | 20 | ||
| Sensory and motor areas | 20 | ||
| The neural crest | 21 | ||
| Divisions of the brain | 21 | ||
| Flexures and the neuraxis | 22 | ||
| Expansion of the telencephalon | 22 | ||
| Formation of gyri and sulci | 23 | ||
| Development of the cerebellum | 24 | ||
| Ventricular system | 25 | ||
| Circulation of CSF | 26 | ||
| 3 Functional neuroanatomy | 27 | ||
| Chapter contents | 27 | ||
| Cerebral cortex | 27 | ||
| Frontal lobe | 27 | ||
| Lateral aspect (Figs 3.1 and 3.4A) | 27 | ||
| Medial aspect (Figs 3.2 and 3.4B) | 27 | ||
| Inferior (orbitofrontal) aspect (Fig. 3.3) | 27 | ||
| Prefrontal cortex (Figs 3.3 and 3.4) | 29 | ||
| Parietal lobe | 29 | ||
| Lateral aspect (Figs 3.1 and 3.4A) | 30 | ||
| 4 Sensory and motor pathways | 49 | ||
| Chapter contents | 49 | ||
| Spinal segments | 49 | ||
| Internal anatomy of the spinal cord | 49 | ||
| Somatic sensory pathways | 50 | ||
| Dorsal column pathway | 50 | ||
| Gracile and cuneate fasciculi | 50 | ||
| Pathway to the cerebral cortex (Fig. 4.4) | 50 | ||
| Spinothalamic tract | 51 | ||
| Pathway to the cerebral cortex (Fig. 4.5) | 52 | ||
| The spinoreticulothalamic pathway | 52 | ||
| Pain arising from the internal organs | 53 | ||
| Visceral and viscerosomatic pain | 53 | ||
| Referred pain | 53 | ||
| Sensory gating and antinociception | 53 | ||
| Supraspinal influences | 53 | ||
| Trigeminothalamic pathways | 54 | ||
| General tactile sensation | 54 | ||
| Pain and temperature | 54 | ||
| Somatic motor pathways | 55 | ||
| Corticospinal tract | 55 | ||
| Origin, course and destination (Fig. 4.12) | 55 | ||
| Corticobulbar tract | 55 | ||
| Termination of corticobulbar fibres | 56 | ||
| Decussation of bulbar fibres | 56 | ||
| Lower motor neurons | 56 | ||
| Motor units and graded contraction | 56 | ||
| The neuromuscular junction | 56 | ||
| Reflexes and muscle tone | 57 | ||
| Muscle tone | 57 | ||
| The stretch reflex | 57 | ||
| The gamma loop | 57 | ||
| Long-latency stretch reflex | 57 | ||
| Hypertonia and spasticity | 57 | ||
| Spasticity | 58 | ||
| The flexor reflex | 59 | ||
| 5 Neurons and glial cells | 61 | ||
| Chapter contents | 61 | ||
| Nerve cells | 61 | ||
| Cortical neurons | 61 | ||
| Pyramidal and granule cells (Fig. 5.1A & B) | 61 | ||
| Cortical lamination | 61 | ||
| Different types of cortex | 61 | ||
| Features of the neuron | 61 | ||
| Dendritic spines | 62 | ||
| Subcellular organelles | 62 | ||
| Lipofuscin and neuromelanin | 63 | ||
| Vesicles | 63 | ||
| The neuronal cytoskeleton | 63 | ||
| Microtubules | 63 | ||
| Neurofilaments | 63 | ||
| Microfilaments | 64 | ||
| Axonal transport | 64 | ||
| Astrocytes | 64 | ||
| Astrocyte functions | 64 | ||
| The blood–brain barrier (Fig. 5.8B) | 64 | ||
| Energy metabolism | 65 | ||
| The glutamate–glutamine shuttle (Fig. 5.9) | 65 | ||
| Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells | 66 | ||
| Myelination | 66 | ||
| Composition of myelin | 66 | ||
| Saltatory conduction | 66 | ||
| Other glial cells | 67 | ||
| Microglia | 67 | ||
| Ependymal cells | 68 | ||
| Glial tumours | 68 | ||
| General features of gliomas | 68 | ||
| Classification and grading | 68 | ||
| Molecular genetics | 69 | ||
| Management of gliomas | 69 | ||
| 6 Electrical signalling in neurons | 71 | ||
| Chapter contents | 71 | ||
| The neuron at rest | 71 | ||
| Origin of the resting membrane potential | 71 | ||
| The sodium pump | 71 | ||
| Ionic basis of the resting membrane potential | 72 | ||
| Calculating the equilibrium potential | 72 | ||
| Effect of membrane permeability | 73 | ||
| The reversal potential | 73 | ||
| Excitability | 75 | ||
| Types of ion channel | 75 | ||
| Gated channels | 75 | ||
| Channel kinetics | 75 | ||
| Voltage-gated channel structure | 75 | ||
| Sodium and potassium channels | 75 | ||
| The action potential | 76 | ||
| Properties of the action potential | 76 | ||
| Nerve impulse generation | 76 | ||
| Frequency coding | 76 | ||
| Refractory periods | 76 | ||
| Ionic basis of the action potential | 77 | ||
| Depolarization (Na+ influx) | 77 | ||
| Repolarization (K+ efflux) | 77 | ||
| Summary of ionic events | 78 | ||
| Axonal conduction | 78 | ||
| Passive current flow | 78 | ||
| Conduction in unmyelinated fibres | 78 | ||
| Antidromic conduction | 79 | ||
| Axonal conduction velocity | 79 | ||
| Myelination and membrane capacitance | 79 | ||
| Conduction in myelinated fibres | 80 | ||
| 7 Synaptic transmission | 81 | ||
| Chapter contents | 81 | ||
| General principles | 81 | ||
| Electrical synapses | 81 | ||
| Chemical synapses | 81 | ||
| General structure (Fig. 7.2) | 81 | ||
| Excitatory and inhibitory synapses (Fig. 7.3) | 82 | ||
| Release of neurotransmitter (Fig. 7.4) | 82 | ||
| Mechanism of membrane fusion | 82 | ||
| Transmitter inactivation | 83 | ||
| Neurotransmitters | 83 | ||
| Classical neurotransmitters | 83 | ||
| Amino acid transmitters | 83 | ||
| Biogenic amines | 83 | ||
| Other signalling molecules | 84 | ||
| Neuropeptides | 84 | ||
| Nitric oxide | 84 | ||
| Postsynaptic receptors | 85 | ||
| Types of receptor | 85 | ||
| Ionotropic receptors | 85 | ||
| Metabotropic receptors | 85 | ||
| Glutamate receptors | 85 | ||
| Ionotropic glutamate receptors | 86 | ||
| Non-NMDA receptors | 86 | ||
| NMDA receptors and calcium | 86 | ||
| Metabotropic glutamate receptors | 86 | ||
| Memory and learning | 87 | ||
| Associative phenomena | 87 | ||
| GABA receptors | 87 | ||
| Ionotropic GABA receptors | 87 | ||
| Metabotropic GABA receptors | 87 | ||
| Synaptic integration | 87 | ||
| Spatial and temporal summation | 87 | ||
| 8 Cellular mechanisms of neurological disease | 91 | ||
| Chapter contents | 91 | ||
| Neuronal injury and death | 91 | ||
| Necrosis | 91 | ||
| Apoptosis | 92 | ||
| Caspases | 92 | ||
| Extrinsic pathway (Fig. 8.2) | 92 | ||
| Intrinsic pathway (Fig. 8.3) | 92 | ||
| Disposal of the cell | 93 | ||
| Axonal damage | 93 | ||
| Transneuronal degeneration (Fig. 8.4) | 93 | ||
| Axonal regrowth | 94 | ||
| Cell death mechanisms | 94 | ||
| Excitotoxicity | 94 | ||
| The role of calcium | 94 | ||
| Oxidative stress | 94 | ||
| Nitric oxide | 95 | ||
| Inflammation and gliosis | 95 | ||
| Reactive gliosis | 95 | ||
| Astrocytosis (Fig. 8.7) | 95 | ||
| Microgliosis (Fig. 8.8) | 96 | ||
| Acute and chronic inflammation | 96 | ||
| Inflammation in the CNS | 96 | ||
| Neurodegeneration | 97 | ||
| General features | 97 | ||
| Neuronal loss and gliosis | 97 | ||
| Protein folding and misfolding | 97 | ||
| Normal protein folding | 97 | ||
| Unfolded protein response | 97 | ||
| Disposal of abnormal proteins | 97 | ||
| The autophagy-lysosomal pathway | 98 | ||
| Protein aggregation | 99 | ||
| Amyloid | 99 | ||
| Amyloid fibril formation | 99 | ||
| Amyloid diseases | 99 | ||
| Amyloid toxicity | 99 | ||
| Prion diseases | 100 | ||
| General characteristics | 100 | ||
| Infectivity | 101 | ||
| Prion protein | 101 | ||
| Codon 129 | 101 | ||
| Conversion of PrPc to PrPSc | 102 | ||
| Conversion models | 102 | ||
| 9 Head injury | 105 | ||
| Chapter contents | 105 | ||
| Clinical aspects | 105 | ||
| Assessment and management | 105 | ||
| Outcome following head injury | 106 | ||
| Pathology of head injury | 106 | ||
| Cerebral contusions | 106 | ||
| Coup and contrecoup lesions (Fig. 9.3) | 106 | ||
| Intracranial haemorrhage | 107 | ||
| Extradural haemorrhage | 107 | ||
| Subdural haemorrhage | 107 | ||
| Intracerebral haemorrhage | 108 | ||
| Diffuse axonal injury | 109 | ||
| Microscopic appearances | 109 | ||
| Skull fracture | 110 | ||
| Brain swelling and intracranial pressure | 110 | ||
| Raised intracranial pressure | 110 | ||
| Brain shift and herniation | 111 | ||
| Types of herniation (Fig. 9.11) | 111 | ||
| Secondary infarction | 112 | ||
| Brain blood flow and ICP | 112 | ||
| Regulation of brain blood flow | 112 | ||
| Minor head injury | 113 | ||
| Concussion | 113 | ||
| Repeated minor head injury | 113 | ||
| 10 Stroke | 115 | ||
| Chapter contents | 115 | ||
| Types of stroke | 115 | ||
| Ischaemic stroke | 115 | ||
| Large vessel and cardioembolic stroke | 116 | ||
| Small vessel disease | 116 | ||
| Transient ischaemic attacks | 117 | ||
| Haemorrhagic stroke | 117 | ||
| Blood supply to the brain | 117 | ||
| Anterior circulation | 117 | ||
| Posterior circulation | 117 | ||
| Circle of Willis | 118 | ||
| Perforating vessels | 118 | ||
| Blood supply to the brain stem | 121 | ||
| Blood supply to the cerebellum | 121 | ||
| Stroke syndromes | 122 | ||
| Atherosclerosis | 122 | ||
| Atheromatous plaques | 122 | ||
| Plaque formation | 123 | ||
| Plaque progression | 123 | ||
| Stroke management | 123 | ||
| Stroke prevention | 123 | ||
| Risk factors for stroke | 124 | ||
| Other factors | 124 | ||
| Pathophysiology of stroke | 125 | ||
| The ischaemic cascade (Fig. 10.16) | 125 | ||
| Failure of ATP production | 125 | ||
| Anaerobic respiration | 125 | ||
| Failure of the sodium pump | 125 | ||
| Calcium and excitotoxicity | 125 | ||
| The ischaemic penumbra | 126 | ||
| Neuroprotection | 126 | ||
| Animal models of stroke | 126 | ||
| Dissociated neuronal cultures | 126 | ||
| Whole animal studies | 126 | ||
| Organotypic cultures | 126 | ||
| Neuroprotective agents | 127 | ||
| Temporal factors | 127 | ||
| Problems with animal models | 127 | ||
| Outcome measures | 127 | ||
| Failure of drug delivery | 127 | ||
| White matter ischaemia | 127 | ||
| Delayed neuronal cell death | 128 | ||
| Reperfusion injury | 128 | ||
| Nitric oxide release | 128 | ||
| Delayed apoptosis | 128 | ||
| 11 Epilepsy | 129 | ||
| Chapter contents | 129 | ||
| Types of seizure | 129 | ||
| Primary generalized seizures | 129 | ||
| Partial (focal) seizures | 129 | ||
| General aspects | 129 | ||
| Aetiology of epilepsy | 131 | ||
| Common seizure patterns | 131 | ||
| Complex partial seizures | 131 | ||
| Generalized tonic-clonic seizures | 131 | ||
| Tonic phase (30 seconds) | 131 | ||
| Clonic phase (60 seconds) | 132 | ||
| Postictal coma (up to 30 minutes) | 132 | ||
| Absence seizures | 132 | ||
| Genetic factors in epilepsy | 132 | ||
| Inherited seizure disorders | 132 | ||
| Diagnosis and management | 133 | ||
| Anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) | 133 | ||
| Mechanisms of action | 133 | ||
| Sodium channel antagonists | 133 | ||
| Calcium channel antagonists | 134 | ||
| GABA potentiators | 134 | ||
| Glutamate modulators | 135 | ||
| Failure of anti-epileptic drugs | 135 | ||
| Pharmacoresistance | 135 | ||
| Surgery in epilepsy | 135 | ||
| Types of procedure | 135 | ||
| Neuropathology of epilepsy | 135 | ||
| Hippocampal sclerosis | 136 | ||
| Microscopic features | 136 | ||
| Aetiology of hippocampal sclerosis | 136 | ||
| Malformations of cortical development | 137 | ||
| Focal cortical dysplasia (FCD) | 137 | ||
| Glioneuronal tumours | 138 | ||
| Partial seizure mechanisms | 139 | ||
| Animal models of epilepsy | 139 | ||
| Acute seizure models | 139 | ||
| Chronic seizure models | 139 | ||
| Genetic seizure models | 140 | ||
| Electrical basis of epilepsy | 140 | ||
| Pathophysiology of epilepsy | 140 | ||
| Increased excitation/decreased inhibition | 140 | ||
| Alterations in connectivity | 140 | ||
| Changes in receptors and ion channels | 140 | ||
| Changes in inhibitory peptides | 141 | ||
| The role of astrocytes | 141 | ||
| Mechanism of absence seizures | 141 | ||
| The thalamic relay and sleep | 141 | ||
| Origin of thalamic bursting | 142 | ||
| Origin of absences | 142 | ||
| Sudden death in epilepsy | 142 | ||
| Cause of death | 143 | ||
| Psychological aspects | 143 | ||
| Association with psychiatric illness | 144 | ||
| Mood disorders in epilepsy | 144 | ||
| Psychosis in temporal lobe epilepsy | 144 | ||
| Postictal psychosis | 144 | ||
| Interictal psychosis | 144 | ||
| Seizures and psychosis | 144 | ||
| 12 Dementia | 145 | ||
| Chapter contents | 145 | ||
| General aspects | 145 | ||
| Clinical features | 145 | ||
| Assessment and diagnosis | 145 | ||
| Psychometric testing | 145 | ||
| Types of dementia | 145 | ||
| Reversible causes | 145 | ||
| Alzheimer’s disease | 147 | ||
| Clinical aspects | 147 | ||
| Memory loss | 147 | ||
| Visuospatial problems | 147 | ||
| Reasoning and language | 147 | ||
| Psychiatric features | 147 | ||
| Neuroimaging | 147 | ||
| Progression and death | 147 | ||
| Risk factors | 148 | ||
| Apolipoprotein E | 148 | ||
| Other genetic factors | 148 | ||
| Protective factors | 149 | ||
| Pathological features | 149 | ||
| Plaques (Fig. 12.5) | 149 | ||
| Neurofibrillary tangles (Fig. 12.6) | 149 | ||
| Neuronal and synaptic loss | 150 | ||
| Pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease | 150 | ||
| Formation of amyloid beta | 150 | ||
| Amyloid processing | 151 | ||
| Primary (alpha) pathway | 151 | ||
| Alternative (beta) pathway | 151 | ||
| Ratio of Aβ40 to Aβ42 | 151 | ||
| Formation of neurofibrillary tangles | 152 | ||
| Amyloid beta clearance | 153 | ||
| Mechanisms for Aβ removal | 153 | ||
| Pathological effects of amyloid beta | 153 | ||
| Toxic oligomeric species | 153 | ||
| Pathological ageing and cognitive reserve | 154 | ||
| Treatment of Alzheimer’s disease | 154 | ||
| Pharmacological agents | 155 | ||
| Disease-modifying agents | 155 | ||
| Dementia with Lewy bodies | 155 | ||
| Clinical features | 155 | ||
| Psychological testing and neuroimaging | 156 | ||
| Pathological features | 156 | ||
| Lewy bodies | 156 | ||
| Progression of pathology | 156 | ||
| Vascular dementia | 156 | ||
| Clinical features | 156 | ||
| Distinction from Alzheimer’s disease | 157 | ||
| Pathological features | 158 | ||
| Small vessel disease | 158 | ||
| Large vessel disease | 159 | ||
| Frontotemporal dementia | 159 | ||
| Clinical features | 159 | ||
| Frontotemporal dementia subtypes | 159 | ||
| Behavioural variant of FTD | 159 | ||
| Semantic dementia | 160 | ||
| Progressive non-fluent aphasia | 161 | ||
| FTD and motor neuron disease | 161 | ||
| Pathological features | 161 | ||
| Molecular classification | 161 | ||
| Genetic factors in FTD | 161 | ||
| 13 Parkinson’s disease | 163 | ||
| Chapter contents | 163 | ||
| Clinical features | 163 | ||
| Akinesia | 163 | ||
| Muscular rigidity | 163 | ||
| Abnormal posture and gait | 163 | ||
| Rest tremor | 163 | ||
| Other features | 163 | ||
| Diagnosis and course | 164 | ||
| Parkinsonism | 164 | ||
| Drug-induced parkinsonism | 165 | ||
| Vascular pseudoparkinsonism | 165 | ||
| Neurodegenerative causes | 165 | ||
| Progressive supranuclear palsy | 165 | ||
| Multiple system atrophy | 165 | ||
| Pathology of Parkinson’s disease | 166 | ||
| Neuronal loss | 166 | ||
| Lewy bodies | 166 | ||
| Progression of Lewy body pathology | 167 | ||
| Alpha-synuclein | 167 | ||
| Familial Parkinson’s disease | 168 | ||
| Autosomal dominant PD | 168 | ||
| Autosomal recessive PD | 169 | ||
| Treatment of Parkinson’s disease | 169 | ||
| Dopamine replacement | 169 | ||
| Problems with levodopa therapy | 169 | ||
| Reduction in efficacy | 169 | ||
| Side effects of levodopa | 170 | ||
| Other agents | 171 | ||
| Anticholinergics | 171 | ||
| Amantadine | 171 | ||
| Enzyme inhibitors | 171 | ||
| Dopamine receptor agonists | 171 | ||
| Surgery in Parkinson’s disease | 171 | ||
| Deep brain stimulation (DBS) | 172 | ||
| Pathophysiology | 172 | ||
| The voluntary motor loop | 172 | ||
| Afferent and efferent connections | 173 | ||
| Projections into the basal ganglia | 173 | ||
| Outflow of the basal ganglia | 173 | ||
| Direct and indirect pathways | 174 | ||
| Direct pathway | 174 | ||
| Indirect pathway | 174 | ||
| Basal ganglia oscillations | 176 | ||
| Aetiology and pathogenesis | 176 | ||
| Risk factors | 176 | ||
| Environmental factors | 176 | ||
| Frozen addict syndrome | 176 | ||
| MPTP in animal models | 176 | ||
| Mechanism of MPTP toxicity | 177 | ||
| Mitochondria and oxidative stress | 177 | ||
| Protein aggregation | 177 | ||
| Neurotoxicity of alpha-synuclein | 177 | ||
| Abnormal phosphorylation | 178 | ||
| Dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system | 178 | ||
| Interaction of pathogenetic mechanisms | 178 | ||
| 14 Multiple sclerosis | 181 | ||
| Chapter contents | 181 | ||
| Demyelination | 181 | ||
| Clinical features of MS | 181 | ||
| Common symptoms | 181 | ||
| Loss of vision | 181 | ||
| Pain and fatigue | 181 | ||
| Paroxysmal symptoms | 182 | ||
| Cognitive and emotional changes | 182 | ||
| Bladder, bowel and sexual dysfunction | 182 | ||
| Cerebellar features | 182 | ||
| Temperature sensitivity | 183 | ||
| Course and progression | 183 | ||
| Relapsing-remitting MS | 183 | ||
| Secondary progressive MS | 184 | ||
| Primary progressive MS | 184 | ||
| Diagnosis and management | 184 | ||
| Diagnosis | 184 | ||
| Neuroimaging | 184 | ||
| Oligoclonal bands | 185 | ||
| Visual evoked potentials | 185 | ||
| Management | 185 | ||
| Disease-modifying drugs (DMDs) | 185 | ||
| Interferon beta | 185 | ||
| Glatiramer acetate | 186 | ||
| Natalizumab | 186 | ||
| Fingolimod | 186 | ||
| Unlicensed drugs | 186 | ||
| Long-term supportive care | 186 | ||
| Pathological features | 187 | ||
| MS plaques | 187 | ||
| Plaque distribution | 187 | ||
| Acute and chronic plaques | 187 | ||
| Remyelination | 188 | ||
| Failure of remyelination | 188 | ||
| Aetiology | 189 | ||
| Genetic and immunologic factors | 189 | ||
| Environmental factors | 189 | ||
| Migration studies | 189 | ||
| Sunlight and vitamin D | 190 | ||
| Viral and other infections | 190 | ||
| Animal models of MS | 190 | ||
| Autoimmune models | 191 | ||
| Viral models | 191 | ||
| Chemically-induced models | 191 | ||
| Genetic models | 191 | ||
| Pathogenesis | 191 | ||
| Inflammatory cells | 192 | ||
| Macrophages | 192 | ||
| T-lymphocytes | 192 | ||
| B-lymphocytes | 192 | ||
| Impact on axonal conduction | 193 | ||
| Types of active plaque | 193 | ||
| Neurodegeneration in MS | 194 | ||
| Axonal damage | 194 | ||
| Mechanism of axonal injury | 194 | ||
| Loss of demyelinated axons | 195 | ||
| Cortical demyelination | 195 | ||
| Appendix Anatomical language | 197 | ||
| Index | 199 | ||
| A | 199 | ||
| B | 199 | ||
| C | 200 | ||
| D | 201 | ||
| E | 201 | ||
| F | 202 | ||
| G | 202 | ||
| H | 202 | ||
| I | 202 | ||
| J | 203 | ||
| K | 203 | ||
| L | 203 | ||
| M | 203 | ||
| N | 204 | ||
| O | 204 | ||
| P | 205 | ||
| Q | 206 | ||
| R | 206 | ||
| S | 206 | ||
| T | 207 | ||
| U | 207 | ||
| V | 207 | ||
| W | 207 | ||
| X | 207 |